Microorganisms and methods for the biosynthesis of adipate, hexamethylenediamine and 6-aminocaproic acid

ABSTRACT

The invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway. The microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme in the respective 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway. The invention additionally provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid. The method can include culturing a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam or hexametheylenediamine producing microbial organism, where the microbial organism expresses at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzyme in a sufficient amount to produce the respective product, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid.

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/776,365, filed May 7, 2010, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/176,196, filed May 7, 2009, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/219,365, filed Jun. 22, 2009, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/244,844, filed Sep. 22, 2009, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/246,973, filed Sep. 29, 2009, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/247,533, filed Sep. 30, 2009, each of which the entire contents are incorporated herein by reference.

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Jul. 11, 2012, is named Sequence_Listing.txt and is 35,150 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to biosynthetic processes, and more specifically to organisms having adipate, hexamethylenediamine, 6-aminocaproic acid and caprolactam biosynthetic capability.

Adipic acid, a dicarboxylic acid, has a molecular weight of 146.14. It can be used is to produce nylon 6,6, a linear polyamide made by condensing adipic acid with hexamethylenediamine. This is employed for manufacturing different kinds of fibers. Other uses of adipic acid include its use in plasticizers, unsaturated polyesters, and polyester polyols. Additional uses include for production of polyurethane, lubricant components, and as a food ingredient as a flavorant and gelling aid.

Historically, adipic acid was prepared from various fats using oxidation. Some current processes for adipic acid synthesis rely on the oxidation of KA oil, a mixture of cyclohexanone, the ketone or K component, and cyclohexanol, the alcohol or A component, or of pure cyclohexanol using an excess of strong nitric acid. There are several variations of this theme which differ in the routes for production of KA or cyclohexanol. For example, phenol is an alternative raw material in KA oil production, and the process for the synthesis of adipic acid from phenol has been described. The other versions of this process tend to use oxidizing agents other than nitric acid, such as hydrogen peroxide, air or oxygen.

In addition to hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) being used in the production of nylon-6,6 as described above, it is also utilized to make hexamethylene diisocyanate, a monomer feedstock used in the production of polyurethane. The diamine also serves as a cross-linking agent in epoxy resins. HMDA is presently produced by the hydrogenation of adiponitrile.

Caprolactam is an organic compound which is a lactam of 6-aminohexanoic acid (ε-aminohexanoic acid, 6-aminocaproic acid). It can alternatively be considered cyclic amide of caproic acid. One use of caprolactam is as a monomer in the production of nylon-6. Caprolactam can be synthesized from cyclohexanone via an oximation process using hydroxylammonium sulfate followed by catalytic rearrangement using the Beckmann rearrangement process step.

Methods for effectively producing commercial quantities of compounds such as hexamethylenediamine, 6-aminocaproic acid, levulinic acid and carpolactamare described herein and include related advantages.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam or hexametheylenediamine pathway. The microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme in the respective 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway. The invention additionally provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam or hexametheylenediamine. The method can include culturing a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid producing microbial organism, where the microbial organism expresses at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzyme in a sufficient amount to produce the respective product, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexametheylenediamine or levulinic acid.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows an exemplary pathway for adipate degradation in the peroxisome of Penicillium chrysogenum.

FIG. 2 shows an exemplary pathway for adipate formation via a reverse degradation pathway. Several options are provided for the final conversion of adipyl-CoA to adipate.

FIG. 3 shows an exemplary pathway for adipate formation via the 3-oxoadipate pathway.

FIG. 4 show the similar enzyme chemistries of the last three steps of the 3-oxoadipate pathway for adipate synthesis and the reductive TCA cycle.

FIG. 5 shows an exemplary pathway for synthesis of adipic acid from glucose via cis,cis-muconic acid. Biosynthetic intermediates (abbreviations): D-erythrose 4-phosphate (E4P), phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP), 3-deoxy-D-arabinoheptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP), 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ), 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS), protocatechuic acid (PCA). Enzymes (encoding genes) or reaction conditions: (a) DAHP synthase (aroFFBR), (b) 3-dehydroquinate synthase (aroB), (c) 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase (aroD), (d) DHS dehydratase (aroZ), (e) protocatechuate decarboxylase (aroY), (f) catechol 1,2-dioxygenase (catA), (g) 10% Pt/C, H2, 3400 kPa, 25° C. Figure taken from Niu et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 18:201-211 (2002)).

FIG. 6 shows an exemplary pathway for adipate synthesis via alpha-ketoadipate using alpha-ketoglutarate as a starting point.

FIG. 7 shows an exemplary pathway for synthesis of adipate using lysine as a starting point.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplary caprolactam synthesis pathway using adipyl-CoA as a starting point.

FIG. 9 shows exemplary adipate synthesis pathways using alpha-ketoadipate as a starting point.

FIG. 10 shows exemplary pathways from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) and caprolactam. Pathways for the production of adipate, 6-aminocaproate, caprolactam, and hexamethylenediamine from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA are depicted. Abbreviations: A) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, B) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA reductase, C) 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, D) 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, E) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, F) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA synthase, G) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA hydrolase, H) 3-oxoadipate reductase, I) 3-hydroxyadipate dehydratase, J) 5-carboxy-2-pentenoate reductase, K) adipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, L) adipyl-CoA synthase, M) adipyl-CoA hydrolase, N) adipyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), O) 6-aminocaproate transaminase, P) 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase, Q) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, R) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase, S) amidohydrolase, T) spontaneous cyclization, U) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), V) HMDA transaminase, W) HMDA dehydrogenase.

FIG. 11 shows exemplary pathways from 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to hexamethylenediamine and caprolactam. Pathways for the production of 6-aminocaproate, caprolactam, and hexamethylenediamine from 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA are depicted. Abbreviations: A) 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase, B) 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase, C) 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase, D) 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, E) 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, F) 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA synthase, G) 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA hydrolase, H) 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate reductase, I) 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate dehydratase, J) 6-aminohex-2-enoate reductase, K) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, L) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase, M) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA hydrolase, N) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), O) HMDA transaminase, P) HMDA dehydrogenase, Q) spontaneous cyclization, R) amidohydrolase.

FIG. 12 shows pathways to 6-aminocaproate from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde. Enzymes are A) HODH aldolase, B) OHED hydratase, C) OHED reductase, D) 2-OHD decarboxylase, E) adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase and/or adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), F) OHED decarboxylase, G) 6-OHE reductase, H) 2-OHD aminotransferase and/or 2-OHD oxidoreductase (aminating), I) 2-AHD decarboxylase, J) OHED aminotransferase and/or OHED oxidoreductase (aminating), K) 2-AHE reductase, L) HODH formate-lyase and/or HODH dehydrogenase, M) 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, N) 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase, O) adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase, P) OHED formate-lyase and/or OHED dehydrogenase, Q) 2-OHD formate-lyase and/or 2-OHD dehydrogenase. Abbreviations are: HODH=4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate, OHED=2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate, 2-OHD=2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate, 2-AHE=2-aminohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate, 2-AHD=2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate, and 6-OHE=6-oxohex-4-enoate.

FIG. 13 shows pathways to hexamethylenediamine from 6-aminocapropate. Enzymes are A) 6-aminocaproate kinase, B) 6-AHOP oxidoreductase, C) 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase and/or 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), D) 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, E) 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase, F) 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase, G) 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase and/or 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating), H) 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase and/or 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide), I) 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase and/or 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase, J) 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase, K) 6-AAHOP acyltransferase, L) 6-AHOP acyltransferase, M) 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase and/or 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase, N) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase. Abbreviations are: 6-AAHOP=[(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate and 6-AHOP=[(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate.

FIG. 14 shows: A) the acetyl-CoA cycle of arginine biosynthesis. Reactions (1) and (2) are catalyzed by ornithine acetyltransferase with acetylglutamate synthase and ornithine acyltransferase functionality. Reaction 3 is a lumped reaction catalyzed by acetylglutamate kinase, N-acetylglutamylphosphate reductase, and acetylornithine aminotransferase; B) the acetyl-CoA cycle of HMDA biosynthesis. Reactions (1) and (2) are catalyzed by HMDA acetyltransferase. Reaction (3) is a lumped reaction that includes all pathways to 6-acetamidohexanamine from 6-acetamidohexanoate shown in FIG. 13.

FIG. 15 shows the growth of E. coli in media containing various concentrations of 6-ACA. E. coli was inoculated into media and grown in either aerobic (left and right bars) or anaerobic (middle bars) conditions. The cultures were grown for 48 hrs during the first trial and 30 hrs for a second trial under aerobic conditions (right bars).

FIG. 16 shows the tolerance of E. coli when exposed to 6-ACA. Midlog (OD600=0.3, lower dashed line) or early stationary (OD600=0.6, upper dashed line) cells were spun down and resuspended in fresh M9-Glucose medium with various concentrations of 6-ACA. After overnight growth, cultures were measured for growth by measuring OD600.

FIG. 17 shows the ethanol production from cultures exposed to various concentrations of 6-ACA. Midlog or early stationary cells were spun down and resuspended in fresh M9-Glucose medium with various concentrations of 6-ACA. After overnight growth, cultures were measured for growth by measuring OD600 and metabolic activity assayed by ethanol production.

FIG. 18, panels A and B, show the growth in various concentrations of 6-ACA with and without glycine betaine. Panel A. OD600 measurements of medium inoculated with midlog cultures of E. coli with various concentrations of 6-ACA with (right bars) and without (left bars) 2 mM glycine betaine. Panel B. Photograph showing the growth of same cultures in the anaerobic bottles.

FIG. 19 shows LC/MS analysis of in vitro thiolase reactions. Succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA were added to His-tagged, purified thiolases at a ratio of 2:1 (succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA). Reactions were analyzed by LC/MS and quantified by comparison to a standard for acetoacetyl-CoA or peak area determined for 3-oxoadipyl-CoA (β-ketoadipyl-CoA).

FIG. 20 shows exemplary pathways from glutamate to hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) and 6-aminocaproate. The enzymes are designated as follows: A) glutamyl-CoA transferase and/or ligase, B) beta-ketothiolase, C) 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase, D) 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase, E) 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, F) 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), G) 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase and/or aminating oxidoreductase, H) homolysine decarboxylase, I) 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, transferase and/or ligase, J) 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase. The enzyme commission number indicated for each reaction is described in Example XXVI below.

FIG. 21 shows exemplary pathways from glutaryl-CoA to hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) and 6-aminocaproate. The enzymes are designated as follows: A) glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, B) 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, transferase and/or ligase, C) 3-oxopimelate reductase, D) 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase and/or 7-aminating oxidoreductase, E) 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase and/or 3-aminating oxidoreductase, F) 3-oxopimelate kinase, G) 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase, H) 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase and/or ligase, I) 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), J) 3-oxopimelate 3-aminotransferase and/or 3-aminating oxidoreductase, K) 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase and/or ligase, L) 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), M) 3-aminopimelate kinase, N) 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, O) 3-aminopimelate reductase, P) 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, Q) 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase and/or aminating oxidoreductase, R) 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, S) homolysine decarboxylase, T) 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, U) 2-aminopimelate kinase, V) 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase and/or ligase, W) 2-aminopimelate reductase, X) 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, Y) 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), Z) 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase and/or 7-aminating oxidoreductase, AA) 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase and AB) 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase and/or 3-aminating oxidoreductase. The enzyme commission number indicated for each reaction is described in XXVI below.

FIG. 22 shows an exemplary pathway from pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal to hexamethylenediamine (HMDA). The enzymes are designated as follows: A) 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase, B) 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase, C) 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase, D) 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase and/or aminating oxidoreductase, E) homolysine decarboxylase, F) 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase, G) 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase and/or 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase. The enzyme commission number indicated for each reaction is described in Example XXVI below.

FIG. 23 shows an exemplary pathway from homolysine to 6-aminocaproate. Step A is catalyzed by homolysine 2-monooxygenase. Step B is hydrolysis, catalyzed by dilute acid or base.

FIG. 24 shows exemplary pathways from 6-aminocaproate to hexamethylenediamine. This figure depicts additional pathways further to those presented in FIG. 13. The enzymes are designated as follows: A) 6-aminocaproate kinase, B) 6-AHOP oxidoreductase, C) 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase and/or 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), D) 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, E) 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase, F) 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase, G) 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase and/or 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating), H) 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase and/or 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide), I) 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase and/or 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase, J) 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase, K) 6-AAHOP acyltransferase, L) 6-AHOP acyltransferase, M) 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase and/or 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase, N) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase, O) 6-aminocaproate reductase and P) 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase. Abbreviations are: 6-AAHOP=[(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate and 6-AHOP=[(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate. The enzyme commission number indicated for each reaction is described in Example XXVI below.

FIG. 25 shows exemplary pathways from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to hexamethylenediamine (HMDA), caprolactam or levulinic acid. Pathways for the production of adipate, 6-aminocaproate, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine and levulinic acid from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA are depicted. This figure depicts additional pathways further to those presented in FIG. 10. The enzymes are designated as follows: A) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, B) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA reductase, C) 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, D) 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, E) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, F) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA synthase, G) 3-oxoadipyl-CoA hydrolase, H) 3-oxoadipate reductase, I) 3-hydroxyadipate dehydratase, J) 5-carboxy-2-pentenoate reductase, K) adipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, L) adipyl-CoA synthase, M) adipyl-CoA hydrolase, N) adipyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), O) 6-aminocaproate transaminase, P) 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase, Q) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, R) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase, S) amidohydrolase, T) spontaneous cyclization, U) 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), V) HMDA transaminase, W) HMDA dehydrogenase, X) adipate reductase, Y) adipate kinase, Z) adipylphosphate reductase, and AA) 3-oxoadipate decarboxylase.

FIG. 26 shows exemplary pathways from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) and 6-aminocaproate. The enzymes are designated as follows: A) 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase, B) 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, C) 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase and/or 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase, D) 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate oxidoreductase, E) 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase, F) 6-aminohexanal oxidoreductase, G) 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, H) homolysine decarboxylase, I) 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase, J) 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase and/or 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase, K) 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminating oxidoreductase and/or 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminotransferase, L) 2,7-diaminosubarate decarboxylase and M) 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase and/or 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase. The enzyme commission number indicated for each reaction is described in Example XXVI below.

FIG. 27 shows an exemplary pathway from glutamate-5-semialdehyde to 2-amino-7-oxosubarate. The enzymes are designated as follows: A) 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase, B) 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase, C) 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase.

FIG. 28 shows the 6-ACA versus growth yields for an ADHEr, LDH_D mutant.

FIG. 29 shows the 6-ACA versus growth yields for an ADHEr, MDH, ASPT, LDH_D mutant.

FIG. 30 shows the 6-ACA versus growth yields for an ADHEr, MDH, ASPT, LDH_D, THD2 mutant.

FIG. 31 shows the 6-ACA versus growth yields for an ADHEr, MDH, ASPT, LDH_D, GLUDy mutant.

FIG. 32 shows the 6-ACA versus growth yields for a PGI, EDA mutant or a PGI, PGDHy mutant.

FIG. 33 shows the 6-ACA versus growth yields for a PGI, EDA, ADHEr mutant or a PGI, PGDHy, ADHEr mutant.

FIG. 34 shows the 6-ACA versus growth yields for an ADHEr, PGI, HEX1 mutant.

FIG. 35 shows growth-coupled adipate production characteristics of high priority strain designs (grey) compared with that of wild-type E. coli (black). A glucose uptake rate of 10 mmol/gDW/hr is assumed.

FIG. 36 shows the activity of CAR 889 and 891 using 20 mM Adipate. Activity is shown as units per mg of total protein in the crude lysate.

FIG. 37 shows the activity of CAR 720, 889, 890, 891 using 50 mM 6-aminocaproate. Activity is shown as units per mg of total protein in the crude lysate.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to the design and production of cells and organisms having biosynthetic production capabilities for 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. The results described herein indicate that metabolic pathways can be designed and recombinantly engineered to achieve the biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid in Escherichia coli and other cells or organisms. Biosynthetic production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be confirmed by construction of strains having the designed metabolic genotype. These metabolically engineered cells or organisms also can be subjected to adaptive evolution to further augment 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis, including under conditions approaching theoretical maximum growth.

As disclosed herein, a number of metabolic pathways for the production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid are described. Two routes, the reverse adipate degradation pathway and the 3-oxoadipate pathway, were found to be beneficial with respect to: (i) the adipate yields (92% molar yield on glucose), (ii) the lack of oxygen requirement for adipate synthesis, (iii) the associated energetics, and (iv) the theoretical capability to produce adipate as the sole fermentation product. Metabolic pathways for adipate production that pass through α-ketoadipate or lysine are also described but are lower yielding and require aeration for maximum production. A pathway for producing either or both of 6-aminocaproate and caprolactam from adipyl-CoA, a precursor in the reverse degradation pathway, is also disclosed herein.

As disclosed herein, a number of exemplary pathways for biosynthesis of adipate are described. One exemplary pathway involves adipate synthesis via a route that relies on the reversibility of adipate degradation as described in organisms such as P. chrysogenum (see Examples I and II). A second exemplary pathway entails the formation of 3-oxoadipate followed by its reduction, dehydration and again reduction to form adipate (see Examples III and IV). The adipate yield using either of these two pathways is 0.92 moles per mole glucose consumed. The uptake of oxygen is not required for attaining these theoretical maximum yields, and the energetics under anaerobic conditions are favorable for growth and product secretion. A method for producing adipate from glucose-derived cis,cis-muconic acid was described previously (Frost et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,487,987, issued Jan. 30, 1996) (see Example V). Advantages of the embodiments disclosed herein over this previously described method are discussed. Metabolic pathways for adipate production that pass through α-ketoadipate (Example VI) or lysine (Example VII) precursors are lower yielding and require aeration for maximum production. A pathway for producing either or both of 6-aminocaproate and caprolactam from adipyl-CoA, a precursor in the reverse degradation pathway, is described (see Example VIII and IX). Additional pathways for producing adipate are described in Examples X and XI. Pathways for producing any one, two, three or all four of 6-aminocaproate, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine and levulinic acid from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA are described in Examples XII, XXVIII. Several pathways for the production of 6-aminocaproate from succinic semialdehyde and pyruvate are described in Example XIX. Several pathways for the production of hexamethylenediamine from 6-aminocaproate are described in Examples XX and XXVII. A pathway for producing either or both 6-aminocaproate and hexamethylenediamine from glutamate is described in Examples XXIV and XXV. Several pathways for the production of hexamethylenediamine from glutaryl-CoA and at least one pathway for production of 6-aminocaproate from glutaryl-CoA are described in Examples XXIV and XXV. A pathway for producing 6-aminocaproate from homolysine is described in Example XXV. Pathways for producing hexamethylenediamine from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate are described in Example XXIV. Several pathways for producing 6-aminocaproate are described in Example XXV. Exemplary genes and enzymes required for constructing microbes with these capabilities are described as well as methods for cloning and transformation, monitoring product formation, and using the engineered microorganisms for production.

As disclosed herein, six different pathways for adipic acid synthesis using glucose/sucrose as a carbon substrate are described. For all maximum yield calculations, the missing reactions in a given pathway were added to the E. coli stoichiometric network in SimPheny that is similar to the one described previously (Reed et al., Genome Biol. 4:R54 (2003)). Adipate is a charged molecule under physiological conditions and was assumed to require energy in the form of a proton-based symport system to be secreted out of the network. Such a transport system is thermodynamically feasible if the fermentations are carried out at neutral or near-neutral pH. Low pH adipic acid formation would require an ATP-dependant export mechanism, for example, the ABC system as opposed to proton symport. The reactions in the pathways and methods of implementation of these pathways are described in Examples I-XI.

As used herein, the term “non-naturally occurring” when used in reference to a microbial organism or microorganism of the invention is intended to mean that the microbial organism has at least one genetic alteration not normally found in a naturally occurring strain of the referenced species, including wild-type strains of the referenced species. Genetic alterations include, for example, modifications introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides, other nucleic acid additions, nucleic acid deletions and/or other functional disruption of the microbial genetic material. Such modifications include, for example, coding regions and functional fragments thereof, for heterologous, homologous or both heterologous and homologous polypeptides for the referenced species. Additional modifications include, for example, non-coding regulatory regions in which the modifications alter expression of a gene or operon. Exemplary metabolic polypeptides include enzymes within a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway.

A metabolic modification refers to a biochemical reaction that is altered from its naturally occurring state. Therefore, non-naturally occurring microorganisms can have genetic modifications to nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides or, functional fragments thereof. Exemplary metabolic modifications are disclosed herein.

As used herein, the term “isolated” when used in reference to a microbial organism is intended to mean an organism that is substantially free of at least one component as the referenced microbial organism is found in nature. The term includes a microbial organism that is removed from some or all components as it is found in its natural environment. The term also includes a microbial organism that is removed from some or all components as the microbial organism is found in non-naturally occurring environments. Therefore, an isolated microbial organism is partly or completely separated from other substances as it is found in nature or as it is grown, stored or subsisted in non-naturally occurring environments. Specific examples of isolated microbial organisms include partially pure microbes, substantially pure microbes and microbes cultured in a medium that is non-naturally occurring.

As used herein, the terms “microbial,” “microbial organism” or “microorganism” is intended to mean any organism that exists as a microscopic cell that is included within the domains of archaea, bacteria or eukarya. Therefore, the term is intended to encompass prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or organisms having a microscopic size and includes bacteria, archaea and eubacteria of all species as well as eukaryotic microorganisms such as yeast and fungi. The term also includes cell cultures of any species that can be cultured for the production of a biochemical.

As used herein, the term “CoA” or “coenzyme A” is intended to mean an organic cofactor or prosthetic group (nonprotein portion of an enzyme) whose presence is required for the activity of many enzymes (the apoenzyme) to form an active enzyme system. Coenzyme A functions in certain condensing enzymes, acts in acetyl or other acyl group transfer and in fatty acid synthesis and oxidation, pyruvate oxidation and in other acetylation.

As used herein, “adipate,” having the chemical formula —OOC—(CH2)4-COO— (see FIG. 2) (IUPAC name hexanedioate), is the ionized form of adipic acid (IUPAC name hexanedioic acid), and it is understood that adipate and adipic acid can be used interchangeably throughout to refer to the compound in any of its neutral or ionized forms, including any salt forms thereof. It is understood by those skilled understand that the specific form will depend on the pH.

As used herein, “6-aminocaproate,” having the chemical formula —OOC—(CH2)5-NH2 (see FIGS. 8 and 12), is the ionized form of 6-aminocaproic acid (IUPAC name 6-aminohexanoic acid), and it is understood that 6-aminocaproate and 6-aminocaproic acid can be used interchangeably throughout to refer to the compound in any of its neutral or ionized forms, including any salt forms thereof. It is understood by those skilled understand that the specific form will depend on the pH.

As used herein, “caprolactam” (IUPAC name azepan-2-one) is a lactam of 6-aminohexanoic acid (see FIG. 8).

As used herein, “hexamethylenediamine,” also referred to as 1,6-diaminohexane or 1,6-hexanediamine, has the chemical formula H2N(CH2)6NH2 (see FIGS. 10, 11 and 13).

As used herein, the term “substantially anaerobic” when used in reference to a culture or growth condition is intended to mean that the amount of oxygen is less than about 10% of saturation for dissolved oxygen in liquid media. The term also is intended to include sealed chambers of liquid or solid medium maintained with an atmosphere of less than about 1% oxygen.

As used herein, the term “osmoprotectant” when used in reference to a culture or growth condition is intended to mean a compound that acts as an osmolyte and helps a microbial organism as described herein survive osmotic stress. Osmoprotectants include, for example, betaines, amino acids, and the sugar trehalose. Non-limiting examples of such are glycine betaine, praline betaine, dimethylthetin, dimethylslfonioproprionate, 3-dimethylsulfonio-2-methylproprionate, pipecolic acid, dimethylsulfonioacetate, choline, L-carnitine and ectoine.

As used herein, the term “growth-coupled” when used in reference to the production of a biochemical is intended to mean that the biosynthesis of the referenced biochemical is produced during the growth phase of a microorganism. In a particular embodiment, the growth-coupled production can be obligatory, meaning that the biosynthesis of the referenced biochemical is an obligatory product produced during the growth phase of a microorganism.

As used herein, “metabolic modification” is intended to refer to a biochemical reaction that is altered from its naturally occurring state. Metabolic modifications can include, for example, elimination of a biochemical reaction activity by functional disruptions of one or more genes encoding an enzyme participating in the reaction. Sets of exemplary metabolic modifications are described herein (see Example XXX).

As used herein, the term “gene disruption,” or grammatical equivalents thereof, is intended to mean a genetic alteration that renders the encoded gene product inactive. The genetic alteration can be, for example, deletion of the entire gene, deletion of a regulatory sequence required for transcription or translation, deletion of a portion of the gene which results in a truncated gene product, or by any of various mutation strategies that inactivate the encoded gene product. One particularly useful method of gene disruption is complete gene deletion because it reduces or eliminates the occurrence of genetic reversions in the non-naturally occurring microorganisms of the invention.

“Exogenous” as it is used herein is intended to mean that the referenced molecule or the referenced activity is introduced into the host microbial organism. The molecule can be introduced, for example, by introduction of an encoding nucleic acid into the host genetic material such as by integration into a host chromosome or as non-chromosomal genetic material such as a plasmid. Therefore, the term as it is used in reference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to introduction of the encoding nucleic acid in an expressible form into the microbial organism. When used in reference to a biosynthetic activity, the term refers to an activity that is introduced into the host reference organism. The source can be, for example, a homologous or heterologous encoding nucleic acid that expresses the referenced activity following introduction into the host microbial organism. Therefore, the term “endogenous” refers to a referenced molecule or activity that is present in the host. Similarly, the term when used in reference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to expression of an encoding nucleic acid contained within the microbial organism. The term “heterologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from a source other than the referenced species whereas “homologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from the host microbial organism. Accordingly, exogenous expression of an encoding nucleic acid of the invention can utilize either or both a heterologous or homologous encoding nucleic acid.

It is understood that when more than one exogenous nucleic acid is included in a microbial organism that the more than one exogenous nucleic acids refers to the referenced encoding nucleic acid or biosynthetic activity, as discussed above. It is further understood, as disclosed herein, that such more than one exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into the host microbial organism on separate nucleic acid molecules, on polycistronic nucleic acid molecules, or a combination thereof, and still be considered as more than one exogenous nucleic acid. For example, as disclosed herein a microbial organism can be engineered to express two or more exogenous nucleic acids encoding a desired pathway enzyme or protein. In the case where two exogenous nucleic acids encoding a desired activity are introduced into a host microbial organism, it is understood that the two exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced as a single nucleic acid, for example, on a single plasmid, on separate plasmids, can be integrated into the host chromosome at a single site or multiple sites, and still be considered as two exogenous nucleic acids. Similarly, it is understood that more than two exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into a host organism in any desired combination, for example, on a single plasmid, on separate plasmids, can be integrated into the host chromosome at a single site or multiple sites, and still be considered as two or more exogenous nucleic acids, for example three exogenous nucleic acids. Thus, the number of referenced exogenous nucleic acids or biosynthetic activities refers to the number of encoding nucleic acids or the number of biosynthetic activities, not the number of separate nucleic acids introduced into the host organism.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can contain stable genetic alterations, which refers to microorganisms that can be cultured for greater than five generations without loss of the alteration. Generally, stable genetic alterations include modifications that persist greater than 10 generations, particularly stable modifications will persist more than about 25 generations, and more particularly, stable genetic modifications will be greater than 50 generations, including indefinitely.

In the case of gene disruptions, a particularly useful stable genetic alteration is a gene deletion. The use of a gene deletion to introduce a stable genetic alteration is particularly useful to reduce the likelihood of a reversion to a phenotype prior to the genetic alteration. For example, stable growth-coupled production of a biochemical can be achieved, for example, by deletion of a gene encoding an enzyme catalyzing one or more reactions within a set of metabolic modifications. The stability of growth-coupled production of a biochemical can be further enhanced through multiple deletions, significantly reducing the likelihood of multiple compensatory reversions occurring for each disrupted activity.

Those skilled in the art will understand that the genetic alterations, including metabolic modifications exemplified herein, are described with reference to a suitable host organism such as E. coli and their corresponding metabolic reactions or a suitable source organism for desired genetic material such as genes for a desired metabolic pathway. However, given the complete genome sequencing of a wide variety of organisms and the high level of skill in the area of genomics, those skilled in the art will readily be able to apply the teachings and guidance provided herein to essentially all other organisms. For example, the E. coli metabolic alterations exemplified herein can readily be applied to other species by incorporating the same or analogous encoding nucleic acid from species other than the referenced species. Such genetic alterations include, for example, genetic alterations of species homologs, in general, and in particular, orthologs, paralogs or nonorthologous gene displacements.

An ortholog is a gene or genes that are related by vertical descent and are responsible for substantially the same or identical functions in different organisms. For example, mouse epoxide hydrolase and human epoxide hydrolase can be considered orthologs for the biological function of hydrolysis of epoxides. Genes are related by vertical descent when, for example, they share sequence similarity of sufficient amount to indicate they are homologous, or related by evolution from a common ancestor. Genes can also be considered orthologs if they share three-dimensional structure but not necessarily sequence similarity, of a sufficient amount to indicate that they have evolved from a common ancestor to the extent that the primary sequence similarity is not identifiable. Genes that are orthologous can encode proteins with sequence similarity of about 25% to 100% amino acid sequence identity. Genes encoding proteins sharing an amino acid similarity less that 25% can also be considered to have arisen by vertical descent if their three-dimensional structure also shows similarities. Members of the serine protease family of enzymes, including tissue plasminogen activator and elastase, are considered to have arisen by vertical descent from a common ancestor.

Orthologs include genes or their encoded gene products that through, for example, evolution, have diverged in structure or overall activity. For example, where one species encodes a gene product exhibiting two functions and where such functions have been separated into distinct genes in a second species, the three genes and their corresponding products are considered to be orthologs. For the production of a biochemical product, those skilled in the art will understand that the orthologous gene harboring the metabolic activity to be introduced or disrupted is to be chosen for construction of the non-naturally occurring microorganism. An example of orthologs exhibiting separable activities is where distinct activities have been separated into distinct gene products between two or more species or within a single species. A specific example is the separation of elastase proteolysis and plasminogen proteolysis, two types of serine protease activity, into distinct molecules as plasminogen activator and elastase. A second example is the separation of mycoplasma 5′-3′ exonuclease and Drosophila DNA polymerase III activity. The DNA polymerase from the first species can be considered an ortholog to either or both of the exonuclease or the polymerase from the second species and vice versa.

In contrast, paralogs are homologs related by, for example, duplication followed by evolutionary divergence and have similar or common, but not identical functions. Paralogs can originate or derive from, for example, the same species or from a different species. For example, microsomal epoxide hydrolase (epoxide hydrolase I) and soluble epoxide hydrolase (epoxide hydrolase II) can be considered paralogs because they represent two distinct enzymes, co-evolved from a common ancestor, that catalyze distinct reactions and have distinct functions in the same species. Paralogs are proteins from the same species with significant sequence similarity to each other suggesting that they are homologous, or related through co-evolution from a common ancestor. Groups of paralogous protein families include HipA homologs, luciferase genes, peptidases, and others.

A nonorthologous gene displacement is a nonorthologous gene from one species that can substitute for a referenced gene function in a different species. Substitution includes, for example, being able to perform substantially the same or a similar function in the species of origin compared to the referenced function in the different species. Although generally, a nonorthologous gene displacement will be identifiable as structurally related to a known gene encoding the referenced function, less structurally related but functionally similar genes and their corresponding gene products nevertheless will still fall within the meaning of the term as it is used herein. Functional similarity requires, for example, at least some structural similarity in the active site or binding region of a nonorthologous gene product compared to a gene encoding the function sought to be substituted. Therefore, a nonorthologous gene includes, for example, a paralog or an unrelated gene.

Therefore, in identifying and constructing the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention having 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic capability, those skilled in the art will understand with applying the teaching and guidance provided herein to a particular species that the identification of metabolic modifications can include identification and inclusion or inactivation of orthologs. To the extent that paralogs and/or nonorthologous gene displacements are present in the referenced microorganism that encode an enzyme catalyzing a similar or substantially similar metabolic reaction, those skilled in the art also can utilize these evolutionally related genes. In gene disruption strategies, evolutionally related genes can also be disrupted or deleted in a host microbial organism, paralogs or orthologs, to reduce or eliminate activities to ensure that any functional redundancy in enzymatic activities targeted for disruption do not short circuit the designed metabolic modifications.

Orthologs, paralogs and nonorthologous gene displacements can be determined by methods well known to those skilled in the art. For example, inspection of nucleic acid or amino acid sequences for two polypeptides will reveal sequence identity and similarities between the compared sequences. Based on such similarities, one skilled in the art can determine if the similarity is sufficiently high to indicate the proteins are related through evolution from a common ancestor. Algorithms well known to those skilled in the art, such as Align, BLAST, Clustal W and others compare and determine a raw sequence similarity or identity, and also determine the presence or significance of gaps in the sequence which can be assigned a weight or score. Such algorithms also are known in the art and are similarly applicable for determining nucleotide sequence similarity or identity. Parameters for sufficient similarity to determine relatedness are computed based on well known methods for calculating statistical similarity, or the chance of finding a similar match in a random polypeptide, and the significance of the match determined. A computer comparison of two or more sequences can, if desired, also be optimized visually by those skilled in the art. Related gene products or proteins can be expected to have a high similarity, for example, 25% to 100% sequence identity. Proteins that are unrelated can have an identity which is essentially the same as would be expected to occur by chance, if a database of sufficient size is scanned (about 5%). Sequences between 5% and 24% may or may not represent sufficient homology to conclude that the compared sequences are related. Additional statistical analysis to determine the significance of such matches given the size of the data set can be carried out to determine the relevance of these sequences.

Exemplary parameters for determining relatedness of two or more sequences using the BLAST algorithm, for example, can be as set forth below. Briefly, amino acid sequence alignments can be performed using BLASTP version 2.0.8 (Jan. 5, 1999) and the following parameters: Matrix: 0 BLOSUM62; gap open: 11; gap extension: 1; x_dropoff: 50; expect: 10.0; wordsize: 3; filter: on. Nucleic acid sequence alignments can be performed using BLASTN version 2.0.6 (Sep. 16, 1998) and the following parameters: Match: 1; mismatch: −2; gap open: 5; gap extension: 2; x_dropoff: 50; expect: 10.0; wordsize: 11; filter: off. Those skilled in the art will know what modifications can be made to the above parameters to either increase or decrease the stringency of the comparison, for example, and determine the relatedness of two or more sequences.

Disclosed herein are non-naturally occurring microbial organisms capable of producing adipate, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. For example, an adipate pathway can be a reverse adipate degradation pathway (see Examples I and II). For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, and adipyl-CoA synthetase or phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase or adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase. In addition, an adipate pathway can be through a 3-oxoadipate pathway (see Examples III and IV). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-oxoadipyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxoadipate reductase, 3-hydroxyadipate dehydratase, and 2-enoate reductase.

Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase and transaminase (see Examples VIII and IX). Alternatively, 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase can be used to convert adipate semialdehyde to form 6-aminocaproate (see FIG. 8). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism can also have a caprolactam pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a caprolactam pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce caprolactam, the caprolactam pathway including CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase, transaminase or 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase, and amidohydrolase (see Examples VIII and IX).

As disclosed herein, a 6-aminocaproic acid or caprolactam producing microbial organism can produce 6-aminocaproic acid and/or caprolactam from an adipyl-CoA precursor (see FIG. 8 and Examples VIII and IX). Therefore, it is understood that a 6-aminocaproic acid or caprolactam producing microbial organism can further include a pathway to produce adipyl-CoA. For example an adipyl-CoA pathway can include the enzymes of FIG. 2 that utilize succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA as precursors through the production of adipyl-CoA, that is, lacking an enzyme for the final step of converting adipyl-CoA to adipate. Thus, one exemplary adipyl-CoA pathway can include succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase and 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase.

In addition, as shown in FIG. 1, an adipate degradation pathway includes the step of converting adipate to adipyl-CoA by an adipate CoA ligase. Therefore, an adipyl-CoA pathway can be an adipate pathway that further includes an enzyme activity that converts adipate to adipyl-CoA, including, for example, adipate-CoA ligase activity as in the first step of FIG. 1 or any of the enzymes in the final step of FIG. 2 carried out in the reverse direction, for example, any of adipyl-CoA synthetase (also referred to as adipate Co-A ligase), phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase, adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase. An enzyme having adipate to adipyl-CoA activity can be an endogenous activity or can be provided as an exogenous nucleic acid encoding the enzyme, as disclosed herein. Thus, it is understood that any adipate pathway can be utilized with an adipate to adipyl-CoA enzymatic activity to generate an adipyl-CoA pathway. Such a pathway can be included in a 6-aminocaproic acid or caprolactam producing microbial organism to provide an adipyl-CoA precursor for 6-aminocaproic acid and/or caprolactam production.

An additional exemplary adipate pathway utilizes alpha-ketoadipate as a precursor (see FIG. 6 and Example VI). For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including homocitrate synthase, homoaconitase, homoisocitrate dehydrogenase, 2-ketoadipate reductase, alpha-hydroxyadipate dehydratase and oxidoreductase. A further exemplary adipate pathway utilizes a lysine dedgradation pathway (see FIG. 7 and Example VII). Another non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including carbon nitrogen lyase, oxidoreductase, transaminase and oxidoreductase.

Yet another exemplary adipate pathway utilizes alpha-ketoadipate as a precursor (see FIG. 9 and Examples X and XI). Thus, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotransketoadipylase/alpha-ketoadipate kinase or alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase; and adipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase, adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase. Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including 2-hydroxyadipate dehydrogenase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotranshydroxyadipylase/2-hydroxyadipate kinase or 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase; and adipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase, adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase.

As disclosed herein, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, including a microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase; 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase, or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA hydrolase (see Examples XII and XIII; steps A/B/C/D/K/L/M of FIG. 11). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, including a microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA synthase, or 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA hydrolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate dehydratase; and 6-aminohex-2-enoate reductase (see Examples XII and XIV; steps A/E/F/G/H/I/J of FIG. 11).

In another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, including a microbial organism having a caprolactam pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a caprolactam pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce caprolactam, the caprolactam pathway including 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase (see Examples XII and XV; steps K/L of FIG. 11). Such a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a caprolactam pathway can further comprise a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway (see FIG. 11). Exemplary 6-aminocaproic acid pathways include the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase; and transaminase or 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase or the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA synthase, or 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA hydrolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate dehydratase; and 6-aminohex-2-enoate reductase (steps A/E/F/G/H/I/J of FIG. 11). It is understood that these or other exemplary 6-aminocaproic acid pathways disclosed herein can additionally be included in a microbial organism having a caprolactam pathway, if desired. The invention also provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, including a microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a hexamethylenediamine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce hexamethylenediamine, the hexamethylenediamine pathway including 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and hexamethylenediamine transaminase or hexamethylenediamine dehydrogenase (see Example XII and XVI; steps K/L/N/O/P of FIG. 11). Such a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a hexamethylenediamine pathway can further comprise a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway (see FIG. 11). Exemplary 6-aminocaproic acid pathways include the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase; and transaminase or 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase or the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA synthase, or 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA hydrolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate dehydratase; and 6-aminohex-2-enoate reductase (steps A/E/F/G/H/I/J of FIG. 11). It is understood that these or other exemplary 6-aminocaproic acid pathways disclosed herein can additionally be included in a microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine pathway, if desired.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a caprolactam pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a caprolactam pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce caprolactam, the caprolactam pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase; and 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (see Examples XII and XVII; steps A/B/C/D of FIG. 11). Also provided is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a hexamethylenediamine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce hexamethylenediamine, the hexamethylenediamine pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase; 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and hexamethylenediamine transaminase or hexamethylenediamine dehydrogenase (see Examples XII and XVIII; steps A/B/C/D/N/O/P of FIG. 11).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) aldolase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) hydratase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) reductase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) decarboxylase, an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase, an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) decarboxylase, a 6-oxohex-4-enoate (6-OHE) reductase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) aminotransferase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) oxidoreductase (aminating), a 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD) decarboxylase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) aminotransferase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) oxidoreductase (aminating), a 2-aminohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (2-AHE) reductase, a 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) formate-lyase, a 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) dehydrogenase, a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase, a adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) formate-lyase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) dehydrogenase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) formate-lyase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) dehydrogenase, or a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A-Q of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD decarboxylase; or an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/C/D/E of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD decarboxylase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED decarboxylase; a 6-OHE reductase; or an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/F/G/E of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED decarboxylase; a 6-OHE reductase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED aminotransferase or an OHED oxidoreductase (aminating); a 2-AHE reductase; or a 2-AHD decarboxylase (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/J/D/I of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED aminotransferase or an OHED oxidoreductase (aminating); a 2-AHE reductase; and a 2-AHD decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD aminotransferase or a 2-OHD oxidoreductase (aminating); or a 2-AHD decarboxylase (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/C/H/I of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD aminotransferase or a 2-OHD oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 2-AHD decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an HODH aldolase; an HODH formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or an HODH dehydrogenase; a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; or an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/L/M/N/O/E of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode an HODH aldolase; an HODH formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or an HODH dehydrogenase; a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or OHED dehydrogenase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; or an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/P/N/O/E of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding G-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or OHED dehydrogenase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or a 2-OHD dehydrogenase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; or an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/C/Q/O/E of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or a 2-OHD dehydrogenase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a glutamyl-CoA transferase, a glutamyl-CoA ligase, a beta-ketothiolase, an 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase, a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), or a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C/D/E/I/J of FIG. 20). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode a glutamyl-CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; a beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase; a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, or a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/AA of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase. The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a homolysine 2-monooxygenase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A of FIG. 23). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes hydrolysis of the 6-aminohexanamide product by a dilute acid or base to convert 6-aminohexanamide to 6-aminocaproate (see Examples XXV and XXVI; step B of FIG. 23).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an adipate reductase, an adipate kinase or an adipylphosphate reductase (see Example XXVIII; steps X/Y/Z of FIG. 25 and Example XXXI). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an adipate reductase. In another further aspect, the G-ACA pathway includes an adipate kinase and an adipylphosphate reductase. In still another aspect, the microbial organism having the 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway above further comprises an adipate pathway, a caprolactam pathway and/or a hexamethylenediamine pathway described here (see Example XXVIII; steps A-W of FIG. 25).

In one embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate oxidoreductase, a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase, a 6-aminohexanal oxidoreductase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, or a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/D/E/F/G/I of FIG. 26). In a further aspect, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase, a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase, or a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27).

In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate oxidoreductase; and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase (see Example XXV; steps A/D/E of FIG. 26). In yet another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal oxidoreductase (see Example XXV; steps A/B/F of FIG. 26). In still yet another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal oxidoreductase (see Example XXV; steps I/G/F of FIG. 26). In a further aspect of each of the above embodiments, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having a second set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzymes expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase; a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase; and a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate kinase, an [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) oxidoreductase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase, an [(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) oxidoreductase, a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating), a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide), a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase, a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase, a 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a [(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) acyltransferase, a [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) acyltransferase, a 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase and a 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps A-N of FIG. 13).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP oxidoreductase; or a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP acyltransferase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; or a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps A/L/N/C of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP acyltransferase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase or a 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; or a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps M/N/C of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase or a 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); or a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Examples XX and XXI; steps D/E/F/G/H of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase or a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase; a 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); or a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Examples XX and XXI; steps D/I/J/G/H of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase or a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase; a 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); or a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Examples XX and XXI; steps D/E/K/J/G of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutamyl-CoA transferase, a glutamyl-CoA ligase, a beta-ketothiolase, an 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase, a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A-H of FIG. 20). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutamyl-CoA transferase or ligase; a beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase; a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxopimelate kinase, a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimelate ligase, a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-aminopimelate ligase, a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-aminopimelate kinase, a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-aminopimelate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a homolysine decarboxylase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate kinase, a 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 2-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 2-aminopimelate reductase, a 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; FIG. 21).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/C/D/E/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate kinase, a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/F/G/D/E/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate kinase; a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase, 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase, 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/H/I/D/E/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate l-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/C/AB/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate kinase, a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/H/I/AB/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate kinase; a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/F/G/AB/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B//J/O/P/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate kinase, a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/M/N/P/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate kinase; a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/K/L/P/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/O/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate l-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/K/L/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate kinase, a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/M/N/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate kinase; a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate reductase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/W/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate reductase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate kinase, a 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/U/X/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate kinase; a 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase, 2-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/V/Y/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase or 2-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase, a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase, a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase aminating oxidoreductase, a homolysine decarboxylase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase, a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A-G of FIG. 22). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase; a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase; a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase or a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase; a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase; a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate reductase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase, 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase, 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating), 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Example XXVII; steps O/C or D/P/G/H of FIG. 24 and Example)000). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate reductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase or a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase; 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase, a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, a homolysine decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminating oxidoreductase, a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminotransferase, a 2,7-diaminosubarate decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; Steps A/B/C/G/H/I/J/K/L/M of FIG. 26). In a further aspect, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase, a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase, or a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27).

In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminating oxidoreductase or 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminotransferase; a 2,7-diaminosubarate decarboxylase; and a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps K/L/H of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase or a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase; and a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps I/J/H of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase or a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps I/G/C of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase or a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase; and a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/M/H of FIG. 26). In a further aspect of each of the above embodiments, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having a second set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzymes expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase; a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase; and a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a levulinic acid (LA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a LA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce LA, the LA pathway including a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA synthase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA hydrolase, or a 3-oxoadipate decarboxylase (see Example XXIX; steps A/E/F/G/AA of FIG. 25). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding LA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase; a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA synthase, or a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA hydrolase; and a 3-oxoadipate decarboxylase.

A non-naturally occurring microbial organism disclosed herein can have, for example, a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, wherein the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product, as disclosed herein. Thus, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can contain at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide, where the polypeptide is an enzyme or protein that converts the substrates and products of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, such as that shown in FIGS. 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 20-27.

For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to 3-oxoadipyl-CoA; 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA; 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA; 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA; adipyl-CoA to adipate (see FIG. 2). Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to 3-oxoadipyl-CoA; 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to 3-oxoadipate; 3-oxoadipate to 3-hydroxyadipate; 3-hydroxyadipate to hexa-2-enedioate (also referred to herein as 5-carboxy-2-pentenoate); hexa-2-enedioate to adipate (see FIG. 3). Also, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from adipyl-CoA to adipate semialdehyde; and adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate (see FIG. 8). Furthermore, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a caprolactam pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from adipyl-CoA to adipate semialdehyde; adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate; and 6-aminocaproate to caprolactam. Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from alpha-ketoadipate to alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA; alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA to 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA; 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA; and adipyl-CoA to adipate (see FIG. 9). Also, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an adipate pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from alpha-ketoadipate to 2-hydroxyadipate; 2-hydroxyadipate to 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA; 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA; and adipyl-CoA to adipate (FIG. 9).

Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA to 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA to 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA; 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA (FIG. 11). Additional substrates and products of such a pathway can include 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproate; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to caprolactam; or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde and 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 11). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism also can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA to 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate to 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate to 6-aminohex-2-enoate; and 6-aminohex-2-enoate to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 11). Additional substrates and products of such a pathway can include 6-aminocaproate to caprolactam or 6-aminocaproate to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA, 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde, and 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 11).

Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate; 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED): 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) to 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD); 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) to adipate semialdehyde; and adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate; 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED); 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) to 6-oxohex-4-enoate (6-OHE): 6-oxohex-4-enoate (6-OHE) to adipate semialdehyde; and adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate; 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED); 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) to 2-aminohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (2-AHE); 2-aminohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (2-AHE) to 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD); and 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD) to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate; 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED); 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) to 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD); 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) to 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD); and 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD) to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate; 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA; 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA; 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA; adipyl-CoA to adipate semialdehyde; and adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate; 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED); 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) to 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA; 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA; adipyl-CoA to adipate semialdehyde; and adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate; 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED); 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) to 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD); 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) to adipyl-CoA; adipyl-CoA to adipate semialdehyde; and adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12).

Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutamate to glutamyl-CoA; glutamyl-coA to 3-oxo-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxo-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA to 3-hydroxy-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA; 3-hydroxy-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA to 6-amino-7-carboxy-hept-2-enoyl-CoA; 6-amino-7-carboxy-hept-2-enoyl-CoA to 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA; 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA to 2-aminopimelate; and 2-aminopimelate to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 20). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 2-aminopimelate; and 2-aminopimelate to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from homolysine to 6-aminohexanamide; and 6-aminohexanamide to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 23). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from adipate to adipate semialdehyde; adipate to adipylphospate; and adipylphospate to adipate semialdehyde (FIG. 25).

Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 6-aminohexanal; 6-aminohexanal to 6-aminocaproate; 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 6-aminohexanal; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 2-aminopimelate; and 2-aminopimelate to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 26). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism can further have a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutamate-5-semialdehyde to 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate; 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate; and 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-7-oxosubarate (FIG. 27). Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP); [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) to 6-aminocaproaic semialdehyde; and 6-aminocaproaic semialdehyde to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 13). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP); [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproaic semialdehyde; and 6-aminocaproaic semialdehyde to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 13). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde; and 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 13). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to 6-acetamidohexanoate; 6-acetamidohexanoate to [(6-acetamidohexanoy)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP); [(6-acetamidohexanoy)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) to 6-acetamidohexanal; 6-acetamidohexanal to 6-acetamidohexanamine; and 6-acetamidohexanamine to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 13). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to 6-acetamidohexanoate; 6-acetamidohexanoate to 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA; 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA to 6-acetamidohexanal; 6-acetamidohexanal to 6-acetamidohexanamine; and 6-acetamidohexanamine to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 13). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to 6-acetamidohexanoate; 6-acetamidohexanoate to [(6-acetamidohexanoy)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP); [(6-acetamidohexanoy)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) to 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA; 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA to 6-acetamidohexanal; 6-acetamidohexanal to 6-acetamidohexanamine; and 6-acetamidohexanamine to hexamethylenediamine (FIG. 13).

Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have an hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutamate to glutamyl-CoA; glutamyl-coA to 3-oxo-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxo-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA to 3-hydroxy-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA; 3-hydroxy-6-amino-pimeloyl-CoA to 6-amino-7-carboxy-hept-2-enoyl-CoA; 6-amino-7-carboxy-hept-2-enoyl-CoA to 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA; 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; -amino-7-oxoheptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 20). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal; 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal to 3-oxo-7-amino heptanoate; 3-oxo-7-amino heptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 5-oxopimeloyl phosphonate; 5-oxopimeloyl phosphonate to 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal; 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal to 3-oxo-7-amino heptanoate; 3-oxo-7-amino heptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal; 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal to 3-oxo-7-amino heptanoate; 3-oxo-7-amino heptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal; 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal; 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 5-oxopimeloyl phosphonate; 5-oxopimeloyl phosphonate to 3-oxo-lcarboxy heptanal; 3-oxo-1-carboxy heptanal to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 2-amino-7-axoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-axoheptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 5-aminopimeloyl phosphonate; 5-aminopimeloyl phosphonate to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 2-amino-7-axoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-axoheptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA; 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 2-amino-7-axoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-axoheptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA; 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 5-aminopimeloyl phosphonate; 5-aminopimeloyl phosphonate to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 3,7-diamino heptanoate; 3,7-diamino heptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 2-aminopimelate; 2-aminopimelate to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 2-aminopimelate; 2-aminopimelate to 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate; 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutaryl-CoA to 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA; 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate; 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate; 3-aminopimelate to 2-aminopimelate; 2-aminopimelate to 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA; 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to homolysine; and homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 21). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal to 2-oxo-4-hydroxy 7-aminoheptanoate; 2-oxo-4-hydroxy 7-aminoheptanoate to 2-oxo-7-amino hept-3-enoate; 2-oxo-7-amino hept-3-enoate to 2-oxo-7-amino heptanoate; 2-oxo-7-amino heptanoate to homolysine; andhomolysine to HMDA (FIG. 22). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal to 2-oxo-4-hydroxy 7-aminoheptanoate; 2-oxo-4-hydroxy 7-aminoheptanoate to 2-oxo-7-amino hept-3-enoate; 2-oxo-7-amino hept-3-enoate to 2-oxo-7-amino heptanoate; 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate to 6-aminohexanal; and 6-aminohexanal to HMDA (FIG. 22). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde; and 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde to HMDA (FIG. 24). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 6-aminocaproate to 6-acetamidohexanoate; 6-acetamidohexanoate to 6-acetamidohexanal; 6-acetamidohexanal to 6-acetamidohexanamine; 6-acetamidohexanamine to HMDA (FIG. 24). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism alternatively can have a HMDA pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 6-aminohexanal; 6-aminohexanal to HMDA; 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate; 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to homolysine; homolysine to HMDA; 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate to homolysine; 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate to 6-aminohexanal; 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2,7-diaminosubarate; and 2,7-diaminosubarate to homolysine (FIG. 26). A non-naturally occurring microbial organism can further have a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from glutamate-5-semialdehyde to 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate; 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate; and 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-7-oxosubarate (FIG. 27).

Additionally, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have a levulinic acid pathway, wherein the microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide that converts a substrate to a product selected from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to 3-oxoadipyl-CoA; 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to 3-oxoadipate; and 3-oxoadipate to levulinic acid. It is understood that any of the pathways disclosed herein which produce an intermediate of one pathway can be used to produce that intermediate for another pathway, if desired. For example, as disclosed herein, the alpha-ketoadipate to adipate pathway shown in FIG. 9 produces the intermediate adipyl-CoA, which is also an intermediate in the pathway depicted in FIG. 10. Thus, it is understood that an alternative pathway includes alpha-ketoadipate to adipyl-CoA, which can be converted to adipate, 6-aminocaporate, caprolactam or hexamethylenediamine, as depicted in FIG. 10. It is understood that any of the pathways disclosed herein that produce a desired intermediate can be used in combination with any other pathways disclosed herein so long as a desired product is produced. For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism disclosed herein, can have at least one nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway enzyme and at least one nucleic acid encoding a hexamethylenediamine pathway enzyme, such as 2-AHD decarboxylase (Step I of FIG. 12) and 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase (Step E of FIG. 13), or alternatively 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) decarboxylase (Step F of FIG. 12), adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase (Step E of FIG. 12) and 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase (Step J of FIG. 13), or alternatively 5-carboxy-2pentenoyl-CoA reductase (Step D of FIG. 10), adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase (Step O of FIG. 12) and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase (Step N of FIG. 13), or alternatively 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase (Step G of FIG. 20) and 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase (Step R of FIG. 21), or alternatively 6-aminocaproate reductase (Step O of FIG. 24) and 6-aminohex-2-enoate reductase (Step J of FIG. 11), or alternatively adipate reductase (Step X of FIG. 25) and 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase (Step P of FIG. 24).

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, wherein the non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts a substrate to a product selected from any of the substrates or products disclosed herein or shown in any of FIGS. 1-14 and 20-27. One skilled in the art will understand that any of the substrate-product pairs disclosed herein suitable to produce a desired product and for which an appropriate activity is available for the conversion of the substrate to the product can be readily determined by one skilled in the art based on the teachings herein. Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein, where the enzyme or protein converts the substrates and products of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, such as any of those shown in FIGS. 1-14 and 20-27.

While generally described herein as a microbial organism that contains a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, it is understood that the invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce an intermediate of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway. For example, as disclosed herein, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway are exemplified in FIGS. 1-14 and 20-27. Therefore, in addition to a microbial organism containing a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway that produces 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, the invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzyme, where the microbial organism produces a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway intermediate, for example, any of the intermediates shown in FIGS. 1-14 and 20-27.

It is understood that any of the pathways disclosed herein, including those as described in the Examples and exemplified in the Figures, including the pathways of FIGS. 1-14 and 20-27, can be utilized to generate a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that produces any pathway intermediate or product, as desired. As disclosed herein, such a microbial organism that produces an intermediate can be used in combination with another microbial organism expressing downstream pathway enzymes to produce a desired product. However, it is understood that a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that produces a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway intermediate can be utilized to produce the intermediate as a desired product.

The invention is described herein with general reference to the metabolic reaction, reactant or product thereof, or with specific reference to one or more nucleic acids or genes encoding an enzyme associated with or catalyzing the referenced metabolic reaction, reactant or product. Unless otherwise expressly stated herein, those skilled in the art will understand that reference to a reaction also constitutes reference to the reactants and products of the reaction. Similarly, unless otherwise expressly stated herein, reference to a reactant or product also references the reaction, and reference to any of these metabolic constituents also references the gene or genes encoding the enzymes that catalyze the referenced reaction, reactant or product. Likewise, given the well known fields of metabolic biochemistry, enzymology and genomics, reference herein to a gene or encoding nucleic acid also constitutes a reference to the corresponding encoded enzyme and the reaction it catalyzes as well as the reactants and products of the reaction.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be produced by introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding one or more of the enzymes participating in one or more 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathways. Depending on the host microbial organism chosen for biosynthesis, nucleic acids for some or all of a particular 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway can be expressed. For example, if a chosen host is deficient in one or more enzymes for a desired biosynthetic pathway, then expressible nucleic acids for the deficient enzyme(s) are introduced into the host for subsequent exogenous expression. Alternatively, if the chosen host exhibits endogenous expression of some pathway genes, but is deficient in others, then an encoding nucleic acid is needed for the deficient enzyme(s) to achieve 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis. Thus, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can be produced by introducing exogenous enzyme activities to obtain a desired biosynthetic pathway or a desired biosynthetic pathway can be obtained by introducing one or more exogenous enzyme activities that, together with one or more endogenous enzymes, produces a desired product such as 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid.

Depending on the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway constituents of a selected host microbial organism, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention will include at least one exogenously expressed 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway-encoding nucleic acid and up to all encoding nucleic acids for one or more adipate, 6-aminocaproic acid or caprolactam biosynthetic pathways. For example, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis can be established in a host deficient in a pathway enzyme through exogenous expression of the corresponding encoding nucleic acid. In a host deficient in all enzymes of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, exogenous expression of all enzymes in the pathway can be included, although it is understood that all enzymes of a pathway can be expressed even if the host contains at least one of the pathway enzymes.

For example, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of adipate can be included in a host organism, such as succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, and adipyl-CoA synthetase or phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase or adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase. In particular, a host organism can contain the adipate pathway enzymes succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, and adipyl-CoA synthetase. Alternatively, a host organism can contain the adipate pathway enzymes succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, and phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase. In addition, a host organism can contain the adipate pathway enzymes succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, and adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase. Further, a host organism can contain the adipate pathway enzymes succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, and adipyl-CoA hydrolase.

In the case of a 6-aminocaproic acid producing microbial organism, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of 6-aminocaproic acid can be included in a host organism, such as CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase and transaminase or CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase and 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase. For a caprolactam producing microbial organism, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of caprolactam can be included in a host organism, such as CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase, transaminase or 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase, and amidohydrolase. In another example, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) can be included in a host organism, such as an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD decarboxylase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), or alternatively an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED decarboxylase; a 6-OHE reductase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), or alternatively an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED aminotransferase or an OHED oxidoreductase (aminating); a 2-AHE reductase; and a 2-AHD decarboxylase, or alternatively an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD aminotransferase or a 2-OHD oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 2-AHD decarboxylase, or alternatively an HODH aldolase; an HODH formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or an HODH dehydrogenase; a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), or alternatively an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or OHED dehydrogenase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), or alternatively an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or a 2-OHD dehydrogenase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In a further aspect, all of the 6-ACA pathway described above can include a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase. In another example, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) can be included in a host organism, such as a glutamyl-CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; a beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase; a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase.

In another example, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of hexamethylenediamine can be included in a host organism, such as a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase, or alternatively a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP acyltransferase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase, or alternatively a 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase or a 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase, or alternatively a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide), or alternatively a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase or a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase; a 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide), or alternatively a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide). In another example, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of hexamethylenediamine can be included in a host organism, such as a glutamyl-CoA transferase or ligase; a beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase; a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate kinase; a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate kinase; a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase or a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate kinase; a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate kinase; a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate reductase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate kinase; a 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase or 2-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase; a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase; a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase or a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase, or alternatively a 6-aminocaproate reductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase or a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), or alternatively a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide).

Depending on the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway constituents of a selected host microbial organism, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention will include at least one exogenously expressed 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway-encoding nucleic acid and up to all encoding nucleic acids for one or more 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathways. For example, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis can be established in a host deficient in a pathway enzyme or protein through exogenous expression of the corresponding encoding nucleic acid. In a host deficient in all enzymes or proteins of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, exogenous expression of all enzyme or proteins in the pathway can be included, although it is understood that all enzymes or proteins of a pathway can be expressed even if the host contains at least one of the pathway enzymes or proteins. For example, exogenous expression of all enzymes or proteins in a pathway for production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be included, as disclosed herein.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that the number of encoding nucleic acids to introduce in an expressible form will, at least, parallel the adipate, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway deficiencies of the selected host microbial organism. Therefore, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can have at least one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven or twelve, up to all nucleic acids encoding the above enzymes constituting a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms also can include other genetic modifications that facilitate or optimize 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis or that confer other useful functions onto the host microbial organism. One such other functionality can include, for example, augmentation of the synthesis of one or more of the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway precursors such as succinyl-CoA and/or acetyl-CoA in the case of adipate synthesis, or adipyl-CoA or adipate in the case of 6-aminocaproic acid or caprolactam synthesis, including the adipate pathway enzymes disclosed herein, or pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde, glutamate, glutaryl-CoA, homolysine or 2-amino-7-oxosubarate in the case of 6-aminocaprioate synthesis, or 6-aminocaproate, glutamate, glutaryl-CoA, pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal, or 2-amino-7-oxosubarate in the case of hexamethylenediamine synthesis.

Generally, a host microbial organism is selected such that it produces the precursor of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, either as a naturally produced molecule or as an engineered product that either provides de novo production of a desired precursor or increased production of a precursor naturally produced by the host microbial organism. A host organism can be engineered to increase production of a precursor, as disclosed herein. In addition, a microbial organism that has been engineered to produce a desired precursor can be used as a host organism and further engineered to express enzymes or proteins of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway.

In some embodiments, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention is generated from a host that contains the enzymatic capability to synthesize 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. In this specific embodiment it can be useful to increase the synthesis or accumulation of a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway product to, for example, drive 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway reactions toward 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid production. Increased synthesis or accumulation can be accomplished by, for example, overexpression of nucleic acids encoding one or more of the above-described 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzymes. Over expression of the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzyme or enzymes can occur, for example, through exogenous expression of the endogenous gene or genes, or through exogenous expression of the heterologous gene or genes. Therefore, naturally occurring organisms can be readily generated to be non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention, for example, producing 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, through overexpression of at least one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, that is, up to all nucleic acids encoding 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway enzymes. In addition, a non-naturally occurring organism can be generated by mutagenesis of an endogenous gene that results in an increase in activity of an enzyme in the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway.

In particularly useful embodiments, exogenous expression of the encoding nucleic acids is employed. Exogenous expression confers the ability to custom tailor the expression and/or regulatory elements to the host and application to achieve a desired expression level that is controlled by the user. However, endogenous expression also can be utilized in other embodiments such as by removing a negative regulatory effector or induction of the gene's promoter when linked to an inducible promoter or other regulatory element. Thus, an endogenous gene having a naturally occurring inducible promoter can be up-regulated by providing the appropriate inducing agent, or the regulatory region of an endogenous gene can be engineered to incorporate an inducible regulatory element, thereby allowing the regulation of increased expression of an endogenous gene at a desired time. Similarly, an inducible promoter can be included as a regulatory element for an exogenous gene introduced into a non-naturally occurring microbial organism.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that includes one or more gene disruptions, such as the gene disruptions disclosed in Example XXX and Tables 14-16, where the organism produces a 6-ACA, adipate and/or HMDA. The disruptions occur in genes encoding an enzyme that couples production of adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA to growth of the organism when the gene disruption reduces the activity of the enzyme, such that the gene disruptions confer increased production of adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA onto the non-naturally occurring organism. Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising one or more gene disruptions, the one or more gene disruptions occurring in genes encoding proteins or enzymes wherein the one or more gene disruptions confer increased production of adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA in the organism. As disclosed herein, such an organism contains a pathway for production of adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA, in addition to the gene disruptions, such as those exemplified in Example XXX and Tables 14-16.

It is understood that, in methods of the invention, any of the one or more exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into a microbial organism to produce a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. The nucleic acids can be introduced so as to confer, for example, a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway onto the microbial organism. Alternatively, encoding nucleic acids can be introduced to produce an intermediate microbial organism having the biosynthetic capability to catalyze some of the required reactions to confer 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic capability. For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway can comprise at least two exogenous nucleic acids encoding desired enzymes. In the case of adipate production, at least two exogenous nucleic acids can encode the enzymes such as the combination of succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, or succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase and 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, or 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA and 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, or 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA and adipyl-CoA synthetase, and the like. In the case of caprolactam production, at least two exogenous nucleic acids can encode the enzymes such as the combination of CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase and transaminase, or CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase and amidohydrolase, or transaminase and amidohydrolase. In the case of 6-aminocaproic acid production, at least two exogenous nucleic acids can encode the enzymes such as the combination of an 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) aldolase and a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) hydratase, or a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) hydratase and a 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD) decarboxylase, a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase and a adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase, a glutamyl-CoA transferase and a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, or a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase and a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase. In the case of hexamethylenediamine production, at least two exogenous nucleic acids can encode the enzymes such as the combination of 6-aminocaproate kinase and [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) oxidoreductase, or a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase and an [(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) oxidoreductase, 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase and 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase and a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase, or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase and a homolysine decarboxylase. Thus, it is understood that any combination of two or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention.

Similarly, it is understood that any combination of three or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, for example, in the case of adipate production, the combination of enzymes succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; or succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase and 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase; or succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase and adipyl-CoA synthetase; or 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase and adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase, and so forth, as desired, so long as the combination of enzymes of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product. In the case of 6-aminocaproic acid production, the at least three exogenous nucleic acids can encode the enzymes such as the combination of an 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) aldolase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) hydratase and a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) decarboxylase, or a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) hydratase, a 2-aminohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (2-AHE) reductase and a 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD) decarboxylase, or a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase and a adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase, or a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase, or a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-aminating oxidoreductase and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase, or a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, a 5-carboxy-2-pentenoate reductase and a adipate reductase. In the case of hexamethylenediamine production, at least three exogenous nucleic acids can encode the enzymes such as the combination of 6-aminocaproate kinase, [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) oxidoreductase and 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase, or a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase and an [(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) oxidoreductase, or 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, a [(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) acyltransferase and 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase, or a 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase and a homolysine decarboxylase, or a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase, a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase and a homolysine decarboxylase, or a 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase, a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase. Similarly, any combination of four or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway as disclosed herein can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, as desired, so long as the combination of enzymes of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product.

In addition to the biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid as described herein, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention also can be utilized in various combinations with each other and with other microbial organisms and methods well known in the art to achieve product biosynthesis by other routes. For example, one alternative to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid other than use of the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producers is through addition of another microbial organism capable of converting an adipate, 6-aminocaproic acid or caprolactam pathway intermediate to 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. One such procedure includes, for example, the fermentation of a microbial organism that produces a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway intermediate. The 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway intermediate can then be used as a substrate for a second microbial organism that converts the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway intermediate to 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. The 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway intermediate can be added directly to another culture of the second organism or the original culture of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway intermediate producers can be depleted of these microbial organisms by, for example, cell separation, and then subsequent addition of the second organism to the fermentation broth can be utilized to produce the final product without intermediate purification steps.

In other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention can be assembled in a wide variety of subpathways to achieve biosynthesis of, for example, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. In these embodiments, biosynthetic pathways for a desired product of the invention can be segregated into different microbial organisms, and the different microbial organisms can be co-cultured to produce the final product. In such a biosynthetic scheme, the product of one microbial organism is the substrate for a second microbial organism until the final product is synthesized. For example, the biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be accomplished by constructing a microbial organism that contains biosynthetic pathways for conversion of one pathway intermediate to another pathway intermediate or the product. Alternatively, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid also can be biosynthetically produced from microbial organisms through co-culture or co-fermentation using two organisms in the same vessel, where the first microbial organism produces a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid intermediate and the second microbial organism converts the intermediate to 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that a wide variety of combinations and permutations exist for the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention together with other microbial organisms, with the co-culture of other non-naturally occurring microbial organisms having subpathways and with combinations of other chemical and/or biochemical procedures well known in the art to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid.

Similarly, it is understood by those skilled in the art that a host organism can be selected based on desired characteristics for introduction of one or more gene disruptions to increase production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. Thus, it is understood that, if a genetic modification is to be introduced into a host organism to disrupt a gene, any homologs, orthologs or paralogs that catalyze similar, yet non-identical metabolic reactions can similarly be disrupted to ensure that a desired metabolic reaction is sufficiently disrupted. Because certain differences exist among metabolic networks between different organisms, those skilled in the art will understand that the actual genes disrupted in a given organism may differ between organisms. However, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art also will understand that the methods of the invention can be applied to any suitable host microorganism to identify the cognate metabolic alterations needed to construct an organism in a species of interest that will increase 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis. In a particular embodiment, the increased production couples biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid to growth of the organism, and can obligatorily couple production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid to growth of the organism if desired and as disclosed herein.

Sources of encoding nucleic acids for a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzyme can include, for example, any species where the encoded gene product is capable of catalyzing the referenced reaction. Such species include both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms including, but not limited to, bacteria, including archaea and eubacteria, and eukaryotes, including yeast, plant, insect, animal, and mammal, including human. Exemplary species for such sources include, for example, Escherichia coli, Escherichia coli str. K12, Escherichia coli C, Escherichia coli W, Pseudomonas sp, Pseudomonas knackmussii, Pseudomonas sp. Strain B13, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas mendocina, Rhodopseudomonas palustris, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Vibrio cholera, Heliobacter pylori, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Serratia proteamaculans, Streptomyces sp. 2065, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, Ralstonia eutropha, Ralstonia eutropha H16, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Euglena gracilis, Treponema denticola, Clostridium kluyveri, Homo sapiens, Rattus norvegicus, Acinetobacter sp. ADP1, Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1, Streptomyces coelicolor, Eubacterium barkeri, Peptostreptococcus asaccharolyticus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium botulinum A3 str, Clostridium tyrobutyricum, Clostridium pasteurianum, Clostridium thermoaceticum (Moorella thermoaceticum), Moorella thermoacetica Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Mus musculus, Sus scrofa, Flavobacterium sp, Arthrobacter aurescens, Penicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus nidulans, Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Zymomonas mobilis, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, Clostridium ljungdahlii, Clostridium carboxydivorans, Geobacillus stearothermophilus, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Achromobacter denitrificans, Arabidopsis thaliana, Haemophilus influenzae, Acidaminococcus fermentans, Clostridium sp. M62/1, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Bos taurus, Zoogloea ramigera, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Clostridium beijerinckii, Metallosphaera sedula, Thermoanaerobacter species, Thermoanaerobacter brockii, Acinetobacter baylyi, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Sulfolobus tokodaii, Sulfolobus tokodaii 7, Sulfolobus solfataricus, Sulfolobus solfataricus, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enterica, Thermotoga maritima, Halobacterium salinarum, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium difficile, Alkaliphilus metalliredigenes, Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis, Saccharomyces kluyveri, Helicobacter pylori, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Clostridium sacchanopenbutylacetonicum, Pseudomonas chlononaphis, Streptomyces clavuligenus, Campylobacter jejuni, Thermus thenmophilus, Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum, Bacteroides capillosus, Anaerotruncus colihominis, Natranaerobius thenmophilius, Archaeoglobus fulgidus, Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304, Haloancula marismortui, Pynobaculum aenophilum, Pynobaculum aenophilum str. IM2, Nicotiana tabacum, Menthe piperita, Pinus taeda, Hordeum vulgane, Zea mays, Rhodococcus opacus, Cupriavidus necator, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, Bradyrhizobium japonicum USDA110, Ascarius suum, butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50, Bacillus megaterium, Methanococcus manipaludis, Methanosarcina mazei, Methanosarcina mazei, Methanocarcina barkeri, Methanocaldococcus jannaschii, Caenorhabditis elegans, Leishmania major, Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum 20Z, Chromohalobacten salexigens, Archaeglubus fulgidus, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, trichomonas vaginalis G3, Trypanosoma brucei, Mycoplana ramose, Micrococcus luteas, Acetobacter pasteunians, Kluyvenomyces lactis, Mesorhizobium loti, Lactococcus lactis, Lysinibacillus sphaericus, Candida boidinii, Candida albicans SC5314, Burkholderia ambifaria AMMD, Ascaris suun, Acinetobacter baumanii, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Burkholderia phymatum, Candida albicans, Clostridium subterminale, Cupriavidus taiwanensis, Flavobacterium lutescens, Lachancea kluyveri, Lactobacillus sp. 30a, Leptospira interrogans, Moorella thermoacetica, Myxococcus xanthus, Nicotiana glutinosa, Nocardia iowensis (sp. NRRL 5646), Pseudomonas reinekei MT1, Ralstonia eutropha JMP134, Ralstonia metallidurans, Rhodococcus jostii, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Selenomonas ruminantium, Streptomyces clavuligenus, Syntrophus aciditrophicus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus, as well as other exemplary species disclosed herein or available as source organisms for corresponding genes (see Examples). However, with the complete genome sequence available for now more than 550 species (with more than half of these available on public databases such as the NCBI), including 395 microorganism genomes and a variety of yeast, fungi, plant, and mammalian genomes, the identification of genes encoding the requisite 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic activity for one or more genes in related or distant species, including for example, homologues, orthologs, paralogs and nonorthologous gene displacements of known genes, and the interchange of genetic alterations between organisms is routine and well known in the art. Accordingly, the metabolic alterations enabling biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid described herein with reference to a particular organism such as E. coli can be readily applied to other microorganisms, including prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms alike. Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will know that a metabolic alteration exemplified in one organism can be applied equally to other organisms.

In some instances, such as when a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway exists in an unrelated species, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis can be conferred onto the host species by, for example, exogenous expression of a paralog or paralogs from the unrelated species that catalyzes a similar, yet non-identical metabolic reaction to replace the referenced reaction. Because certain differences among metabolic networks exist between different organisms, those skilled in the art will understand that the actual gene usage between different organisms may differ. However, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art also will understand that the teachings and methods of the invention can be applied to all microbial organisms using the cognate metabolic alterations to those exemplified herein to construct a microbial organism in a species of interest that will synthesize 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid.

Host microbial organisms can be selected from, and the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms generated in, for example, bacteria, yeast, fungus or any of a variety of other microorganisms applicable to fermentation processes. Exemplary bacteria include species selected from Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, Rhizobium etli, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Gluconobacter oxydans, Zymomonas mobilis, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptomyces coelicolor, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Pseudomonas putida. Exemplary yeasts or fungi include species selected from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus niger, Pichia pastoris, Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhizobus oryzae, and the like. For example, E. coli is a particularly useful host organisms since it is a well characterized microbial organism suitable for genetic engineering. Other particularly useful host organisms include yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It is understood that any suitable microbial host organism can be used to introduce metoblic and/or genetic modifications to produce a desired product.

Methods for constructing and testing the expression levels of a non-naturally occurring 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid-producing host can be performed, for example, by recombinant and detection methods well known in the art. Such methods can be found described in, for example, Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York (2001); and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley and Sons, Baltimore, Md. (1999).

Exogenous nucleic acid sequences involved in a pathway for production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be introduced stably or transiently into a host cell using techniques well known in the art including, but not limited to, conjugation, electroporation, chemical transformation, transduction, transfection, and ultrasound transformation. For exogenous expression in E. coli or other prokaryotic cells, some nucleic acid sequences in the genes or cDNAs of eukaryotic nucleic acids can encode targeting signals such as an N-terminal mitochondrial or other targeting signal, which can be removed before transformation into prokaryotic host cells, if desired. For example, removal of a mitochondrial leader sequence led to increased expression in E. coli (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005). For exogenous expression in yeast or other eukaryotic cells, genes can be expressed in the cytosol without the addition of leader sequence, or can be targeted to mitochondrion or other organelles, or targeted for secretion, by the addition of a suitable targeting sequence such as a mitochondrial targeting or secretion signal suitable for the host cells. Thus, it is understood that appropriate modifications to a nucleic acid sequence to remove or include a targeting sequence can be incorporated into an exogenous nucleic acid sequence to impart desirable properties. Furthermore, genes can be subjected to codon optimization with techniques well known in the art to achieve optimized expression of the proteins.

An expression vector or vectors can be constructed to include one or more 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathway encoding nucleic acids as exemplified herein operably linked to expression control sequences functional in the host organism. Expression vectors applicable for use in the microbial host organisms of the invention include, for example, plasmids, phage vectors, viral vectors, episomes and artificial chromosomes, including vectors and selection sequences or markers operable for stable integration into a host chromosome. Additionally, the expression vectors can include one or more selectable marker genes and appropriate expression control sequences. Selectable marker genes also can be included that, for example, provide resistance to antibiotics or toxins, complement auxotrophic deficiencies, or supply critical nutrients not in the culture media. Expression control sequences can include constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancers, transcription terminators, and the like which are well known in the art. When two or more exogenous encoding nucleic acids are to be co-expressed, both nucleic acids can be inserted, for example, into a single expression vector or in separate expression vectors. For single vector expression, the encoding nucleic acids can be operationally linked to one common expression control sequence or linked to different expression control sequences, such as one inducible promoter and one constitutive promoter. The transformation of exogenous nucleic acid sequences involved in a metabolic or synthetic pathway can be confirmed using methods well known in the art. Such methods include, for example, nucleic acid analysis such as Northern blots or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of mRNA, or immunoblotting for expression of gene products, or other suitable analytical methods to test the expression of an introduced nucleic acid sequence or its corresponding gene product. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in a sufficient amount to produce the desired product, and it is further understood that expression levels can be optimized to obtain sufficient expression using methods well known in the art and as disclosed herein.

Directed evolution is one approach that involves the introduction of mutations targeted to a specific gene in order to improve and/or alter the properties of an enzyme. Improved and/or altered enzymes can be identified through implementation screening assays that allow for the identification of useful variants. Particularly useful screening methods include sensitive high-throughput assays that allow the automated screening of many enzyme variants (e.g., >10⁴). Iterative rounds of mutagenesis and screening typically are performed to identify an enzyme with optimized properties. The greater the number of variants screened, the higher the probability of identifying an ideally suitable variant. Computational algorithms that can help to identify areas of the gene for mutagenesis also have been developed and can significantly reduce the number of enzyme variants that need to be generated and screened.

Numerous directed evolution technologies have been developed (for reviews, see Hibbert et al., Biomol. Eng 22:11-19 (2005); Huisman and Lalonde, In Biocatalysis in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries pgs. 717-742 (2007), Patel (ed.), CRC Press; Otten and Quax. Biomol. Eng 22:1-9 (2005); and Sen et al., Appl Biochem. Biotechnol 143:212-223 (2007)) to be effective at creating diverse variant libraries and these methods have been successfully applied to the improvement of a wide range of properties across many enzyme classes.

Enzyme characteristics that have been improved and/or altered by directed evolution technologies include, for example, selectivity/specificity—for conversion of non-natural substrates; temperature stability—for robust high temperature processing; pH stability—for bioprocessing under lower or higher pH conditions; substrate or product tolerance—so that high product titers can be achieved; binding (K_(m))—broadens substrate binding to include non-natural substrates; inhibition (K_(i))—to remove inhibition by products, substrates, or key intermediates; activity (kcat)—increases enzymatic reaction rates to achieve desired flux; expression levels—increases protein yields and overall pathway flux; oxygen stability—for operation of air sensitive enzymes under aerobic conditions; and anaerobic activity—for operation of an aerobic enzyme in the absence of oxygen.

The following exemplary methods have been developed for the mutagenesis and diversification of genes to target desired properties of specific enzymes. Any of these can be used to alter/optimize activity of a decarboxylase enzyme.

EpPCR (Pritchard et al., J. Theor. Biol 234:497-509 (2005)) introduces random point mutations by reducing the fidelity of DNA polymerase in PCR reactions by the addition of Mn²⁺ ions, by biasing dNTP concentrations, or by other conditional variations. The five step cloning process to confine the mutagenesis to the target gene of interest involves: 1) error-prone PCR amplification of the gene of interest; 2) restriction enzyme digestion; 3) gel purification of the desired DNA fragment; 4) ligation into a vector; 5) transformation of the gene variants into a suitable host and screening of the library for improved performance. This method can generate multiple mutations in a single gene simultaneously, which can be useful. A high number of mutants can be generated by EpPCR, so a high-throughput screening assay or a selection method (especially using robotics) is useful to identify those with desirable characteristics.

Error-prone Rolling Circle Amplification (epRCA) (Fujii et al., Nucleic Acids Res 32:e145 (2004); and Fujii et al., Nat. Protoc. 1:2493-2497 (2006)) has many of the same elements as epPCR except a whole circular plasmid is used as the template and random 6-mers with exonuclease resistant thiophosphate linkages on the last 2 nucleotides are used to amplify the plasmid followed by transformation into cells in which the plasmid is re-circularized at tandem repeats. Adjusting the Mn²⁺ concentration can vary the mutation rate somewhat. This technique uses a simple error-prone, single-step method to create a full copy of the plasmid with 3-4 mutations/kbp. No restriction enzyme digestion or specific primers are required. Additionally, this method is typically available as a kit.

DNA or Family Shuffling (Stemmer, Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 91:10747-10751 (1994); and Stemmer, Nature 370:389-391 (1994)) typically involves digestion of two or more variant genes with nucleases such as Dnase I or EndoV to generate a pool of random fragments that are reassembled by cycles of annealing and extension in the presence of DNA polymerase to create a library of chimeric genes. Fragments prime each other and recombination occurs when one copy primes another copy (template switch). This method can be used with >1 kbp DNA sequences. In addition to mutational recombinants created by fragment reassembly, this method introduces point mutations in the extension steps at a rate similar to error-prone PCR. The method can be used to remove deleterious, random and neutral mutations that might confer antigenicity.

Staggered Extension (StEP) (Zhao et al., Nat. Biotechnol 16:258-261 (1998)) entails template priming followed by repeated cycles of 2 step PCR with denaturation and very short duration of annealing/extension (as short as 5 sec). Growing fragments anneal to different templates and extend further, which is repeated until full-length sequences are made. Template switching means most resulting fragments have multiple parents. Combinations of low-fidelity polymerases (Taq and Mutazyme) reduce error-prone biases because of opposite mutational spectra.

In Random Priming Recombination (RPR) random sequence primers are used to generate many short DNA fragments complementary to different segments of the template. (Shao et al., Nucleic Acids Res 26:681-683 (1998)) Base misincorporation and mispriming via epPCR give point mutations. Short DNA fragments prime one another based on homology and are recombined and reassembled into full-length by repeated thermocycling. Removal of templates prior to this step assures low parental recombinants. This method, like most others, can be performed over multiple iterations to evolve distinct properties. This technology avoids sequence bias, is independent of gene length, and requires very little parent DNA for the application.

In Heteroduplex Recombination linearized plasmid DNA is used to form heteroduplexes that are repaired by mismatch repair. (Volkov et al, Nucleic Acids Res 27:e18 (1999); and Volkov et al., Methods Enzymol. 328:456-463 (2000)) The mismatch repair step is at least somewhat mutagenic. Heteroduplexes transform more efficiently than linear homoduplexes. This method is suitable for large genes and whole operons.

Random Chimeragenesis on Transient Templates (RACHITT) (Coco et al., Nat. Biotechnol 19:354-359 (2001)) employs Dnase I fragmentation and size fractionation of ssDNA. Homologous fragments are hybridized in the absence of polymerase to a complementary ssDNA scaffold. Any overlapping unhybridized fragment ends are trimmed down by an exonuclease. Gaps between fragments are filled in, and then ligated to give a pool of full-length diverse strands hybridized to the scaffold (that contains U to preclude amplification). The scaffold then is destroyed and is replaced by a new strand complementary to the diverse strand by PCR amplification. The method involves one strand (scaffold) that is from only one parent while the priming fragments derive from other genes; the parent scaffold is selected against. Thus, no reannealing with parental fragments occurs. Overlapping fragments are trimmed with an exonuclease. Otherwise, this is conceptually similar to DNA shuffling and StEP. Therefore, there should be no siblings, few inactives, and no unshuffled parentals. This technique has advantages in that few or no parental genes are created and many more crossovers can result relative to standard DNA shuffling.

Recombined Extension on Truncated templates (RETT) entails template switching of unidirectionally growing strands from primers in the presence of unidirectional ssDNA fragments used as a pool of templates. (Lee et al., J. Molec. Catalysis 26:119-129 (2003)) No DNA endonucleases are used. Unidirectional ssDNA is made by DNA polymerase with random primers or serial deletion with exonuclease. Unidirectional ssDNA are only templates and not primers. Random priming and exonucleases don't introduce sequence bias as true of enzymatic cleavage of DNA shuffling/RACHITT. RETT can be easier to optimize than StEP because it uses normal PCR conditions instead of very short extensions. Recombination occurs as a component of the PCR steps—no direct shuffling. This method can also be more random than StEP due to the absence of pauses.

In Degenerate Oligonucleotide Gene Shuffling (DOGS) degenerate primers are used to control recombination between molecules; (Bergquist and Gibbs, Methods Mol. Biol. 352:191-204 (2007); Bergquist et al., Biomol. Eng 22:63-72 (2005); Gibbs et al., Gene 271:13-20 (2001)) this can be used to control the tendency of other methods such as DNA shuffling to regenerate parental genes. This method can be combined with random mutagenesis (epPCR) of selected gene segments. This can be a good method to block the reformation of parental sequences. No endonucleases are needed. By adjusting input concentrations of segments made, one can bias towards a desired backbone. This method allows DNA shuffling from unrelated parents without restriction enzyme digests and allows a choice of random mutagenesis methods.

Incremental Truncation for the Creation of Hybrid Enzymes (ITCHY) creates a combinatorial library with 1 base pair deletions of a gene or gene fragment of interest. (Ostermeier et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 96:3562-3567 (1999); and Ostermeier et al., Nat. Biotechnol 17:1205-1209 (1999)) Truncations are introduced in opposite direction on pieces of 2 different genes. These are ligated together and the fusions are cloned. This technique does not require homology between the 2 parental genes. When ITCHY is combined with DNA shuffling, the system is called SCRATCHY (see below). A major advantage of both is no need for homology between parental genes; for example, functional fusions between an E. coli and a human gene were created via ITCHY. When ITCHY libraries are made, all possible crossovers are captured.

Thio-Incremental Truncation for the Creation of Hybrid Enzymes (THIO-ITCHY) is similar to ITCHY except that phosphothioate dNTPs are used to generate truncations. (Lutz et al., Nucleic Acids Res 29:E16 (2001)) Relative to ITCHY, THIO-ITCHY can be easier to optimize, provide more reproducibility, and adjustability.

SCRATCHY combines two methods for recombining genes, ITCHY and DNA shuffling. (Lutz et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 98:11248-11253 (2001)) SCRATCHY combines the best features of ITCHY and DNA shuffling. First, ITCHY is used to create a comprehensive set of fusions between fragments of genes in a DNA homology-independent fashion. This artificial family is then subjected to a DNA-shuffling step to augment the number of crossovers. Computational predictions can be used in optimization. SCRATCHY is more effective than DNA shuffling when sequence identity is below 80%.

In Random Drift Mutagenesis (RNDM) mutations made via epPCR followed by screening/selection for those retaining usable activity. (Bergquist et al., Biomol. Eng 22:63-72 (2005)) Then, these are used in DOGS to generate recombinants with fusions between multiple active mutants or between active mutants and some other desirable parent. Designed to promote isolation of neutral mutations; its purpose is to screen for retained catalytic activity whether or not this activity is higher or lower than in the original gene. RNDM is usable in high throughput assays when screening is capable of detecting activity above background. RNDM has been used as a front end to DOGS in generating diversity. The technique imposes a requirement for activity prior to shuffling or other subsequent steps; neutral drift libraries are indicated to result in higher/quicker improvements in activity from smaller libraries. Though published using epPCR, this could be applied to other large-scale mutagenesis methods.

Sequence Saturation Mutagenesis (SeSaM) is a random mutagenesis method that: 1) generates pool of random length fragments using random incorporation of a phosphothioate nucleotide and cleavage; this pool is used as a template to 2) extend in the presence of “universal” bases such as inosine; 3) replication of a inosine-containing complement gives random base incorporation and, consequently, mutagenesis. (Wong et al., Biotechnol J 3:74-82 (2008); Wong et al., Nucleic Acids Res 32:e26 (2004); and Wong et al., Anal. Biochem. 341:187-189 (2005)) Using this technique it can be possible to generate a large library of mutants within 2-3 days using simple methods. This technique is non-directed in comparison to the mutational bias of DNA polymerases. Differences in this approach makes this technique complementary (or an alternative) to epPCR.

In Synthetic Shuffling, overlapping oligonucleotides are designed to encode “all genetic diversity in targets” and allow a very high diversity for the shuffled progeny. (Ness et al., Nat. Biotechnol 20:1251-1255 (2002)) In this technique, one can design the fragments to be shuffled. This aids in increasing the resulting diversity of the progeny. One can design sequence/codon biases to make more distantly related sequences recombine at rates approaching those observed with more closely related sequences. Additionally, the technique does not require physically possessing the template genes.

Nucleotide Exchange and Excision Technology NexT exploits a combination of dUTP incorporation followed by treatment with uracil DNA glycosylase and then piperidine to perform endpoint DNA fragmentation. (Muller et al., Nucleic Acids Res 33:e117 (2005)) The gene is reassembled using internal PCR primer extension with proofreading polymerase. The sizes for shuffling are directly controllable using varying dUPT::dTTP ratios. This is an end point reaction using simple methods for uracil incorporation and cleavage. Other nucleotide analogs, such as 8-oxo-guanine, can be used with this method. Additionally, the technique works well with very short fragments (86 bp) and has a low error rate. The chemical cleavage of DNA used in this technique results in very few unshuffled clones.

In Sequence Homology-Independent Protein Recombination (SHIPREC) a linker is used to facilitate fusion between two distantly/unrelated genes. Nuclease treatment is used to generate a range of chimeras between the two genes. These fusions result in libraries of single-crossover hybrids. (Sieber et al., Nat. Biotechnol 19:456-460 (2001)) This produces a limited type of shuffling and a separate process is required for mutagenesis. In addition, since no homology is needed this technique can create a library of chimeras with varying fractions of each of the two unrelated parent genes. SHIPREC was tested with a heme-binding domain of a bacterial CP450 fused to N-terminal regions of a mammalian CP450; this produced mammalian activity in a more soluble enzyme.

In Gene Site Saturation Mutagenesis™ (GSSM™) the starting materials are a supercoiled dsDNA plasmid containing an insert and two primers which are degenerate at the desired site of mutations. (Kretz et al., Methods Enzymol. 388:3-11 (2004)) Primers carrying the mutation of interest, anneal to the same sequence on opposite strands of DNA. The mutation is typically in the middle of the primer and flanked on each side by ˜20 nucleotides of correct sequence. The sequence in the primer is NNN or NNK (coding) and MNN (noncoding) (N=all 4, K=G, T, M=A, C). After extension, DpnI is used to digest dam-methylated DNA to eliminate the wild-type template. This technique explores all possible amino acid substitutions at a given locus (i.e., one codon). The technique facilitates the generation of all possible replacements at a single-site with no nonsense codons and results in equal to near-equal representation of most possible alleles. This technique does not require prior knowledge of the structure, mechanism, or domains of the target enzyme. If followed by shuffling or Gene Reassembly, this technology creates a diverse library of recombinants containing all possible combinations of single-site up-mutations. The utility of this technology combination has been demonstrated for the successful evolution of over 50 different enzymes, and also for more than one property in a given enzyme.

Combinatorial Cassette Mutagenesis (CCM) involves the use of short oligonucleotide cassettes to replace limited regions with a large number of possible amino acid sequence alterations. (Reidhaar-Olson et al. Methods Enzymol. 208:564-586 (1991); and Reidhaar-Olson et al. Science 241:53-57 (1988)) Simultaneous substitutions at two or three sites are possible using this technique. Additionally, the method tests a large multiplicity of possible sequence changes at a limited range of sites. This technique has been used to explore the information content of the lambda repressor DNA-binding domain.

Combinatorial Multiple Cassette Mutagenesis (CMCM) is essentially similar to CCM except it is employed as part of a larger program: 1) Use of epPCR at high mutation rate to 2) ID hot spots and hot regions and then 3) extension by CMCM to cover a defined region of protein sequence space. (Reetz, M. T., S. Wilensek, D. Zha, and K. E. Jaeger, 2001, Directed Evolution of an Enantioselective Enzyme through Combinatorial Multiple-Cassette Mutagenesis. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 40:3589-3591.) As with CCM, this method can test virtually all possible alterations over a target region. If used along with methods to create random mutations and shuffled genes, it provides an excellent means of generating diverse, shuffled proteins. This approach was successful in increasing, by 51-fold, the enantioselectivity of an enzyme.

In the Mutator Strains technique conditional is mutator plasmids allow increases of 20- to 4000-X in random and natural mutation frequency during selection and block accumulation of deleterious mutations when selection is not required. (Selifonova et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3645-3649 (2001)) This technology is based on a plasmid-derived mutD5 gene, which encodes a mutant subunit of DNA polymerase III. This subunit binds to endogenous DNA polymerase III and compromises the proofreading ability of polymerase III in any strain that harbors the plasmid. A broad-spectrum of base substitutions and frameshift mutations occur. In order for effective use, the mutator plasmid should be removed once the desired phenotype is achieved; this is accomplished through a temperature sensitive origin of replication, which allows for plasmid curing at 41° C. It should be noted that mutator strains have been explored for quite some time (e.g., see Low et al., J. Mol. Biol. 260:359-3680 (1996)). In this technique very high spontaneous mutation rates are observed. The conditional property minimizes non-desired background mutations. This technology could be combined with adaptive evolution to enhance mutagenesis rates and more rapidly achieve desired phenotypes.

“Look-Through Mutagenesis (LTM) is a multidimensional mutagenesis method that assesses and optimizes combinatorial mutations of selected amino acids.” (Rajpal et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 102:8466-8471 (2005)) Rather than saturating each site with all possible amino acid changes, a set of nine is chosen to cover the range of amino acid R-group chemistry. Fewer changes per site allows multiple sites to be subjected to this type of mutagenesis. A>800-fold increase in binding affinity for an antibody from low nanomolar to picomolar has been achieved through this method. This method is a rational approach to minimize the number of random combinations and can increase the ability to find improved traits by greatly decreasing the numbers of clones to be screened. This has been applied to antibody engineering, specifically to increase the binding affinity and/or reduce dissociation. The technique can be combined with either screens or selections.

Gene Reassembly is a DNA shuffling method that can be applied to multiple genes at one time or to creating a large library of chimeras (multiple mutations) of a single gene (Tunable GeneReassembly™ (TGR™) Technology supplied by Verenium Corporation). Typically this technology is used in combination with ultra-high-throughput screening to query the represented sequence space for desired improvements. This technique allows multiple gene recombinations independent of homology. The exact number and position of cross-over events can be pre-determined using fragments designed via bioinformatic analysis. This technology leads to a very high level of diversity with virtually no parental gene reformation and a low level of inactive genes. Combined with GSSM™, a large range of mutations can be tested for improved activity. The method allows “blending” and “fine tuning” of DNA shuffling, e.g. codon usage can be optimized.

In Silico Protein Design Automation (PDA) is an optimization algorithm that anchors the structurally defined protein backbone possessing a particular fold, and searches sequence space for amino acid substitutions that can stabilize the fold and overall protein energetics. (Hayes et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 99:15926-15931 (2002)) This technology uses in silico structure-based entropy predictions in order to search for structural tolerance toward protein amino acid variations. Statistical mechanics is applied to calculate coupling interactions at each position. Structural tolerance toward amino acid substitution is a measure of coupling. Ultimately, this technology is designed to yield desired modifications of protein properties while maintaining the integrity of structural characteristics. The method computationally assesses and allows filtering of a very large number of possible sequence variants (10⁵⁰). The choice of sequence variants to test is related to predictions based on the most favorable thermodynamics. Ostensibly only stability or properties that are linked to stability can be effectively addressed with this technology. The method has been successfully used in some therapeutic proteins, especially in engineering immunoglobulins. In silico predictions avoid testing extraordinarily large numbers of potential variants. Predictions based on existing three-dimensional structures are more likely to succeed than predictions based on hypothetical structures. This technology can readily predict and allow targeted screening of multiple simultaneous mutations, something not possible with purely experimental technologies due to exponential increases in numbers.

Iterative Saturation Mutagenesis (ISM) involves: 1) use knowledge of structure/function to choose a likely site for enzyme improvement; 2) saturation mutagenesis at chosen site using Stratagene QuikChange (or other suitable means); 3) screen/select for desired properties; and 4) with improved clone(s), start over at another site and continue repeating. (Reetz et al., Nat. Protoc. 2:891-903 (2007); and Reetz et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 45:7745-7751 (2006)) This is a proven methodology, which assures all possible replacements at a given position are made for screening/selection.

Any of the aforementioned methods for mutagenesis can be used alone or in any combination. Additionally, any one or combination of the directed evolution methods can be used in conjunction with adaptive evolution techniques.

The invention additionally provides methods for producing a desired intermediate or product such as adipate, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. For example, a method for producing adipate can involve culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an adipate pathway, the pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase, and adipyl-CoA synthetase or phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase or adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase. Additionally, a method for producing adipate can involve culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an adipate pathway, the pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-oxoadipyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxoadipate reductase, 3-hydroxyadipate dehydratase, and 2-enoate reductase.

Further, a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid can involve culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway, the pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase and transaminase or 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase. Additionally, a method for producing caprolactam can involve culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a caprolactam pathway, the pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a caprolactam pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce caprolactam, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce caprolactam, the caprolactam pathway including CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase, transaminase or 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase, and amidohydrolase.

The invention additionally provides methods for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-ACA pathway described herein under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 6-ACA. In one aspect the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD decarboxylase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In another aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED decarboxylase; a 6-OHE reductase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In yet another aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED aminotransferase or an OHED oxidoreductase (aminating); a 2-AHE reductase; and a 2-AHD decarboxylase. In still yet another aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD aminotransferase or a 2-OHD oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 2-AHD decarboxylase. In still yet another aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an HODH formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or an HODH dehydrogenase; a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In still yet another aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or OHED dehydrogenase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In still yet another aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or a 2-OHD dehydrogenase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathways described above can include a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase.

The invention additionally provides methods for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway described herein under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce HMDA. In one aspect the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase. In another aspect, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP acyltransferase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase. In yet another aspect, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase or a 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase. In still yet another aspect, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide). In still yet another aspect, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase or a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase; a 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide). In still yet another aspect, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide).

Also, a method for producing adipate can involve culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an adipate pathway, the pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotransketoadipylase/alpha-ketoadipate kinase or alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase; and adipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase, adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase. Furthermore, a method for producing adipate can involve culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an adipate pathway, the pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an adipate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce adipate, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce adipate, the adipate pathway including 2-hydroxyadipate dehydrogenase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotranshydroxyadipylase/2-hydroxyadipate kinase or 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase; 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase; and adipyl-CoA synthetase, phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase, adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase or adipyl-CoA hydrolase.

As disclosed herein, the invention also provides method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase; 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase, or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA hydrolase (see Examples XII and XIII; steps A/B/C/D/K/L/M of FIG. 11). The invention additionally provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA synthase, or 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA hydrolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate dehydratase; and 6-aminohex-2-enoate reductase (see Examples XII and XIV; steps A/E/F/G/H/I/J of FIG. 11).

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing caprolactam by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a caprolactam pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a caprolactam pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce caprolactam, the caprolactam pathway including 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase (see Examples XII and XV; steps K/L of FIG. 11). In such a method, the caprolactam can be produced by spontaneous cyclization of 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to caprolactam (see Example XII; step Q of FIG. 11). The invention also provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a hexamethylenediamine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce hexamethylenediamine, the hexamethylenediamine pathway including 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and hexamethylenediamine transaminase or hexamethylenediamine dehydrogenase (see Examples XII and XVI; steps K/L/N/O/P of FIG. 11).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing caprolactam by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a caprolactam pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a caprolactam pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce caprolactam, the caprolactam pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase; and 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (see Examples XII and XVII; steps A/B/C/D of FIG. 11). In such a method, the caprolactam can be produced by spontaneous cyclization of 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to caprolactam (see Example XII; step Q of FIG. 11). Also provided is a method for producing hexamethylenediamine by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a hexamethylenediamine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce hexamethylenediamine, the hexamethylenediamine pathway including 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase; 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase; 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and hexamethylenediamine transaminase or hexamethylenediamine dehydrogenase (see Examples XII and XVIII; steps A/B/C/D/N/O/P of FIG. 11).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-ACA pathway, the microbial organism including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase, a 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) aldolase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) hydratase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) reductase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) decarboxylase, an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase, an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) decarboxylase, a 6-oxohex-4-enoate (6-OHE) reductase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) aminotransferase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) oxidoreductase (aminating), a 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD) decarboxylase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) aminotransferase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) oxidoreductase (aminating), a 2-aminohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (2-AHE) reductase, a 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) formate-lyase, a 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) dehydrogenase, a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase, a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase, a adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) formate-lyase, a 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) dehydrogenase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) formate-lyase, a 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) dehydrogenase, or a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A-Q of FIG. 12).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-ACA pathway, the microbial organism including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA. In one aspect the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD decarboxylase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/C/D/E of FIG. 12). In another aspect of the invention, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED decarboxylase; a 6-OHE reductase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/F/G/E of FIG. 12). In another aspect of the invention, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED aminotransferase or an OHED oxidoreductase (aminating); a 2-AHE reductase; and a 2-AHD decarboxylase (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/J/D/I of FIG. 12). In another aspect of the invention, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD aminotransferase or a 2-OHD oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 2-AHD decarboxylase (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/C/H/I of FIG. 12). In another aspect of the invention, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an HODH formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or an HODH dehydrogenase; a 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/L/M/N/O/E of FIG. 12). the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or OHED dehydrogenase; a 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/P/N/0/E of FIG. 12). In another aspect of the invention, the 6-ACA pathway includes an HODH aldolase; an OHED hydratase; an OHED reductase; a 2-OHD formate-lyase and a pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme or a 2-OHD dehydrogenase; an adipyl-CoA dehydrogenase; and an adipate semialdehyde aminotransferase or an adipate semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) (see Examples XIX and XXI; steps A/B/C/Q/O/E of FIG. 12). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathways described above can include a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-ACA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a glutamyl-CoA transferase, a glutamyl-CoA ligase, a beta-ketothiolase, an 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase, a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), or a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C/D/E/I/J of FIG. 20). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode a glutamyl-CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; a beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase; a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-ACA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, or a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/AA of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encode a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-ACA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a homolysine 2-monooxygenase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A of FIG. 23). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes hydrolysis of the 6-aminohexanamide product by a dilute acid or base to convert 6-aminohexanamide to 6-aminocaproate (see Example XXV; steps B of FIG. 23).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-ACA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including an adipate reductase, an adipate kinase or an adipylphosphate reductase (see Example XXVIII; steps X/Y/Z of FIG. 25). In a further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an adipate reductase. In another further aspect, the 6-ACA pathway includes an adipate kinase and an adipylphosphate reductase. In still another aspect, the microbial organism having the 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway above further comprises an adipate pathway, a caprolactam pathway and/or a hexamethylenediamine pathway described here (see Example XXVIII; steps A-W of FIG. 25).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 6-ACA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 6-ACA, the 6-ACA pathway including a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate oxidoreductase, a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase, a 6-aminohexanal oxidoreductase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, or a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/D/E/F/G/I of FIG. 26). In a further aspect, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase, a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase, or a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27).

In another embodiment of the invention, the invention provides a method for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) pathway including a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate oxidoreductase; and a 2-aminopimelate decarboxylase (see Example XXV; steps A/D/E of FIG. 26). In yet another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal oxidoreductase (see Example XXV; steps A/B/F of FIG. 26). In still yet another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 6-ACA pathway enzymes, where the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal oxidoreductase (see Example XXV; steps I/G/F of FIG. 26). In a further aspect of each of the above embodiments, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having a second set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzymes expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase; a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase; and a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway, the microbial organism including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate kinase, an [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) oxidoreductase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase, an [(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) oxidoreductase, a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating), a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide), a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase, a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase, a 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a [(6-acetamidohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AAHOP) acyltransferase, a [(6-aminohexanoyl)oxy]phosphonate (6-AHOP) acyltransferase, a 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase and a 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps A-N of FIG. 13).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway, the microbial organism including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA. In one aspect the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate kinase; a 6-AHOP acyltransferase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps A/L/N/C of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate CoA transferase or a 6-aminocaproate CoA ligase; a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA oxidoreductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating) or a 6-aminocaproic acid semialdehyde aminotransferase (see Examples XX and XXI; steps M/N/C of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Examples XX and XXI; steps D/E/F/G/H of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA transferase or a 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA ligase; a 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Examples XX and XXI; steps D/I/J/G/H of FIG. 13). In another aspect of the invention, the HMDA pathway includes a 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; a 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase; a 6-AAHOP oxidoreductase; a 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and a 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or a 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Examples XX and XXI; steps D/E/K/J/G of FIG. 13).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutamyl-CoA transferase, a glutamyl-CoA ligase, a beta-ketothiolase, an 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase, a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase, a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A-H of FIG. 20). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutamyl-CoA transferase or ligase; a beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA oxidoreductase; a 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA dehydratase; a 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxopimelate kinase, a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimelate ligase, a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-aminopimelate ligase, a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-aminopimelate kinase, a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-aminopimelate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a homolysine decarboxylase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate kinase, a 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 2-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 2-aminopimelate reductase, a 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; FIG. 21).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/C/D/E/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate kinase, a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/F/G/D/E/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate kinase; a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase, 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase, 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/H/I/D/E/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminotransferase or 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/C/AB/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate kinase, a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/H/I/AB/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate kinase; a 5-oxopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase, a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/F/G/AB/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminotransferase or a 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal 3-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B//J/O/P/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate kinase, a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/M/N/P/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate kinase; a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/K/L/P/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/O/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate l-aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase, a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/K/L/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate CoA transferase or a 3-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate kinase, a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/M/N/Z/R/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate kinase; a 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate reductase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/W/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate reductase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate kinase, a 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/U/X/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate kinase; a 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate reductase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a HMDA pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase, a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase, a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase, a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase, a 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase, 2-aminopimelate CoA ligase, a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase, 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, or a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/J/T/V/Y/Q/S of FIG. 21). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a glutaryl-CoA beta-ketothiolase; a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA hydrolase, a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA transferase or a 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA ligase; a 3-oxopimelate aminotransferase or a 3-oxopimelate aminating oxidoreductase; a 3-aminopimelate 2,3-aminomutase; a 2-aminopimelate CoA transferase or 2-aminopimelate CoA ligase; a 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate 7-aminotransferase or 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase.

The invention additionally provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase, a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase, a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase aminating oxidoreductase, a homolysine decarboxylase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase, a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase or 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A-G of FIG. 22). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase; a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase; a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase or a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase; and a homolysine decarboxylase. In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase; a 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase; a 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase or a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase.

The invention additionally provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 6-aminocaproate reductase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase, a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating), 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase, a 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase, 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase, 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating), 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide) (see Example XXVII; steps O/C or D/P/G/H of FIG. 24). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 6-aminocaproate reductase; and a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde aminotransferase or a 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde oxidoreductase (aminating). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase; 6-acetamidohexanoate reductase; 6-acetamidohexanal aminotransferase or 6-acetamidohexanal oxidoreductase (aminating); and 6-acetamidohexanamine N-acetyltransferase or 6-acetamidohexanamine hydrolase (amide).

The invention additionally provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a HMDA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce HMDA, the HMDA pathway including a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase, a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase, a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase, a homolysine decarboxylase, a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase, a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase, a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminating oxidoreductase, a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminotransferase or a 2,7-diaminosubarate decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; Steps A/B/C/G/H/I/J/K/L/M of FIG. 26). In a further aspect, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase, a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase, or a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27).

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) pathway including a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminating oxidoreductase or 2-amino-7-oxosubarate aminotransferase; a 2,7-diaminosubarate decarboxylase; and a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps K/L/H of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase or a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase; and a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps I/J/H of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate amino acid decarboxylase; a 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase or a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps I/G/C of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate decarboxylase; and a 6-aminohexanal aminating oxidoreductase or a 6-aminohexanal aminotransferase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 26). In another embodiment of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding HMDA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate keto-acid decarboxylase; a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminating oxidoreductase or a 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate aminotransferase; and a homolysine decarboxylase (see Examples XXIV and XXVI; steps A/M/H of FIG. 26). In a further aspect of each of the above embodiments, the microbioal organism has a 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway having a second set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway enzymes expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-amino-7-oxosubarate pathway including a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate aldolase; a 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate dehydratase; and a 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate reductase (see Examples XXV and XXVI; steps A/B/C of FIG. 27).

The invention additionally provides a method for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a levulinic acid (LA) pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a LA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce LA, the LA pathway including a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA synthase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA hydrolase, or a 3-oxoadipate decarboxylase (see Example XXIX; steps A/E/F/G/AA of FIG. 25). In another aspect of the invention, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a set of exogenous nucleic acids encoding LA pathway enzymes, wherein the set encodes a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase; a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA synthase, or a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA hydrolase; and a 3-oxoadipate decarboxylase.

The invention further provides methods of producing non-naturally microbial organisms having increased production of adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA by disruption of one or more genes to confer increased production of adiate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA. Such gene disruptions include those exemplified herein in Example XXX and Tables 14-16.

The invention additionally provides a method for producing adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA that includes culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that includes one or more gene disruptions that confer increased production of adiapte, 6-ACA and/or HMDA. The disruptions can occur in genes encoding an enzyme obligatory to coupling adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA production to growth of the microorganism when the gene disruption reduces an activity of the enzyme, such that the disruptions confer stable growth-coupled production of adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA onto the non-naturally microbial organism.

In some embodiments, the gene disruption can include a complete gene deletion. Methods for gene disruption are well known to those skilled in the art and are described herein (see Example XXX). In some embodiments other methods to disrupt a gene include, for example, frameshifting by omission, addition of oligonucleotides or by mutations that render the gene inoperable. One skilled in the art will recognize the advantages of gene deletions, however, because of the stability it can confer to the non-naturally occurring organism from reverting to a phenotype expressing the previously disrupted gene. In particular, the gene disruptions are selected from the gene sets that described in Tables 14-16.

Suitable purification and/or assays to test for the production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be performed using well known methods. Suitable replicates such as triplicate cultures can be grown for each engineered strain to be tested. For example, product and byproduct formation in the engineered production host can be monitored. The final product and intermediates, and other organic compounds, can be analyzed by methods such as HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography), GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy) and LC-MS (Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy) or other suitable analytical methods using routine procedures well known in the art. The release of product in the fermentation broth can also be tested with the culture supernatant. Byproducts and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC using, for example, a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 90:775-779 (2005)), or other suitable assay and detection methods well known in the art. The individual enzyme activities from the exogenous DNA sequences can also be assayed using methods well known in the art.

The 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be separated from other components in the culture using a variety of methods well known in the art. Such separation methods include, for example, extraction procedures as well as methods that include continuous liquid-liquid extraction, pervaporation, membrane filtration, membrane separation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, distillation, crystallization, centrifugation, extractive filtration, ion exchange chromatography, size exclusion chromatography, adsorption chromatography, and ultrafiltration. All of the above methods are well known in the art.

Any of the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms described herein can be cultured to produce and/or secrete the biosynthetic products of the invention. For example, the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producers can be cultured for the biosynthetic production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid.

For the production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, the recombinant strains are cultured in a medium with carbon source and other essential nutrients. It is sometimes desirable and can be highly desirable to maintain anaerobic conditions in the fermenter to reduce the cost of the overall process. Such conditions can be obtained, for example, by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the flasks with a septum and crimp-cap. For strains where growth is not observed anaerobically, microaerobic or substantially anaerobic conditions can be applied by perforating the septum with a small hole for limited aeration. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well-known in the art. Exemplary aerobic and anaerobic conditions are described, for example, in United State publication 2009/0047719 (Ser. No. 11/891,602), filed Aug. 10, 2007. Fermentations can be performed in a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner, as disclosed herein.

If desired, the pH of the medium can be maintained at a desired pH, in particular neutral pH, such as a pH of around 7 by addition of a base, such as NaOH or other bases, or acid, as needed to maintain the culture medium at a desirable pH. The growth rate can be determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time.

The growth medium can include, for example, any carbohydrate source which can supply a source of carbon to the non-naturally occurring microorganism. Such sources include, for example, sugars such as glucose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, fructose, sucrose and starch. Other sources of carbohydrate include, for example, renewable feedstocks and biomass. Exemplary types of biomasses that can be used as feedstocks in the methods of the invention include cellulosic biomass, hemicellulosic biomass and lignin feedstocks or portions of feedstocks. Such biomass feedstocks contain, for example, carbohydrate substrates useful as carbon sources such as glucose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, fructose and starch. Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that renewable feedstocks and biomass other than those exemplified above also can be used for culturing the microbial organisms of the invention for the production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid.

In addition to renewable feedstocks such as those exemplified above, the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid microbial organisms of the invention also can be modified for growth on syngas as its source of carbon. In this specific embodiment, one or more proteins or enzymes are expressed in the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producing organisms to provide a metabolic pathway for utilization of syngas or other gaseous carbon source.

Synthesis gas, also known as syngas or producer gas, is the major product of gasification of coal and of carbonaceous materials such as biomass materials, including agricultural crops and residues. Syngas is a mixture primarily of H₂ and CO and can be obtained from the gasification of any organic feedstock, including but not limited to coal, coal oil, natural gas, biomass, and waste organic matter. Gasification is generally carried out under a high fuel to oxygen ratio. Although largely H₂ and CO, syngas can also include CO₂ and other gases in smaller quantities. Thus, synthesis gas provides a cost effective source of gaseous carbon such as CO and, additionally, CO₂.

The Wood-Ljungdahl pathway catalyzes the conversion of CO and H₂ to acetyl-CoA and other products such as acetate. Organisms capable of utilizing CO and syngas also generally have the capability of utilizing CO₂ and CO₂/H₂ mixtures through the same basic set of enzymes and transformations encompassed by the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. H₂-dependent conversion of CO₂ to acetate by microorganisms was recognized long before it was revealed that CO also could be used by the same organisms and that the same pathways were involved. Many acetogens have been shown to grow in the presence of CO₂ and produce compounds such as acetate as long as hydrogen is present to supply the necessary reducing equivalents (see for example, Drake, Acetogenesis, pp. 3-60 Chapman and Hall, New York, (1994)). This can be summarized by the following equation: 2CO₂+4H₂ +nADP+nPi→CH₃COOH+2H₂O+nATP

Hence, non-naturally occurring microorganisms possessing the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway can utilize CO₂ and H₂ mixtures as well for the production of acetyl-CoA and other desired products.

The Wood-Ljungdahl pathway is well known in the art and consists of 12 reactions which can be separated into two branches: (1) methyl branch and (2) carbonyl branch. The methyl branch converts syngas to methyl-tetrahydrofolate (methyl-THF) whereas the carbonyl branch converts methyl-THF to acetyl-CoA. The reactions in the methyl branch are catalyzed in order by the following enzymes: ferredoxin oxidoreductase, formate dehydrogenase, formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase, methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclodehydratase, methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase. The reactions in the carbonyl branch are catalyzed in order by the following enzymes or proteins: cobalamide corrinoid/iron-sulfur protein, methyltransferase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, acetyl-CoA synthase, acetyl-CoA synthase disulfide reductase and hydrogenase, and these enzymes can also be referred to as methyltetrahydrofolate:corrinoid protein methyltransferase (for example, AcsE), corrinoid iron-sulfur protein, nickel-protein assembly protein (for example, AcsF), ferredoxin, acetyl-CoA synthase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and nickel-protein assembly protein (for example, CooC). Following the teachings and guidance provided herein for introducing a sufficient number of encoding nucleic acids to generate a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway, those skilled in the art will understand that the same engineering design also can be performed with respect to introducing at least the nucleic acids encoding the Wood-Ljungdahl enzymes or proteins absent in the host organism. Therefore, introduction of one or more encoding nucleic acids into the microbial organisms of the invention such that the modified organism contains the complete Wood-Ljungdahl pathway will confer syngas utilization ability.

Additionally, the reductive (reverse) tricarboxylic acid cycle coupled with carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and/or hydrogenase activities can also be used for the conversion of CO, CO₂ and/or H₂ to acetyl-CoA and other products such as acetate. Organisms capable of fixing carbon via the reductive TCA pathway can utilize one or more of the following enzymes: ATP citrate-lyase, citrate lyase, aconitase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, succinyl-CoA transferase, fumarate reductase, fumarase, malate dehydrogenase, NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, and hydrogenase. Specifically, the reducing equivalents extracted from CO and/or H₂ by carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and hydrogenase are utilized to fix CO₂ via the reductive TCA cycle into acetyl-CoA or acetate. Acetate can be converted to acetyl-CoA by enzymes such as acetyl-CoA transferase, acetate kinase/phosphotransacetylase, and acetyl-CoA synthetase. Acetyl-CoA can be converted to the p-toluate, terepathalate, or (2-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutoxy)phosphonate precursors, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, phosphoenolpyruvate, and pyruvate, by pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and the enzymes of gluconeogenesis. Following the teachings and guidance provided herein for introducing a sufficient number of encoding nucleic acids to generate a p-toluate, terephthalate or (2-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutoxy)phosphonate pathway, those skilled in the art will understand that the same engineering design also can be performed with respect to introducing at least the nucleic acids encoding the reductive TCA pathway enzymes or proteins absent in the host organism. Therefore, introduction of one or more encoding nucleic acids into the microbial organisms of the invention such that the modified organism contains the complete reductive TCA pathway will confer syngas utilization ability.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can be produced that secretes the biosynthesized compounds of the invention when grown on a carbon source such as a carbohydrate. Such compounds include, for example, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid and any of the intermediate metabolites in the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway. All that is required is to engineer in one or more of the required enzyme activities to achieve biosynthesis of the desired compound or intermediate including, for example, inclusion of some or all of the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthetic pathways. Accordingly, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that produces and/or secretes 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid when grown on a carbohydrate and produces and/or secretes any of the intermediate metabolites shown in the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway when grown on a carbohydrate. For example, an adipate producing microbial organisms can initiate synthesis from an intermediate, for example, 3-oxoadipyl-CoA, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA, or adipyl-CoA (see FIG. 2), as desired. In addition, an adipate producing microbial organism can initiate synthesis from an intermediate, for example, 3-oxoadipyl-CoA, 3-oxoadipate, 3-hydroxyadipate, or hexa-2-enedioate (see FIG. 3). The 6-aminocaproic acid producing microbial organism of the invention can initiate synthesis from an intermediate, for example, adipate semialdehyde (see FIG. 8). The caprolactam producing microbial organism of the invention can initiate synthesis from an intermediate, for example, adipate semialdehyde or 6-aminocaproic acid (see FIG. 8), as desired.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention are constructed using methods well known in the art as exemplified herein to exogenously express at least one nucleic acid encoding a 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid pathway enzyme in sufficient amounts to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. It is understood that the microbial organisms of the invention are cultured under conditions sufficient to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. Following the teachings and guidance provided herein, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can achieve biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid resulting in intracellular concentrations between about 0.1-200 mM or more. Generally, the intracellular concentration of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid is between about 3-150 mM, particularly between about 5-125 mM and more particularly between about 8-100 mM, including about 10 mM, 20 mM, 50 mM, 80 mM, or more. Intracellular concentrations between and above each of these exemplary ranges also can be achieved from the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention.

In some embodiments, culture conditions include anaerobic or substantially anaerobic growth or maintenance conditions. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well known in the art. Exemplary anaerobic conditions for fermentation processes are described herein and are described, for example, in U.S. publication 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007. Any of these conditions can be employed with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms as well as other anaerobic conditions well known in the art. Under such anaerobic conditions, the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producers can synthesize 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid at intracellular concentrations of 5-10 mM or more as well as all other concentrations exemplified herein. It is understood that, even though the above description refers to intracellular concentrations, 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producing microbial organisms can produce 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid intracellularly and/or secrete the product into the culture medium.

The culture conditions can include, for example, liquid culture procedures as well as fermentation and other large scale culture procedures. As described herein, particularly useful yields of the biosynthetic products of the invention can be obtained under anaerobic or substantially anaerobic culture conditions.

As described herein, one exemplary growth condition for achieving biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid includes anaerobic culture or fermentation conditions. In certain embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be sustained, cultured or fermented under anaerobic or substantially anaerobic conditions. Briefly, anaerobic conditions refers to an environment devoid of oxygen. Substantially anaerobic conditions include, for example, a culture, batch fermentation or continuous fermentation such that the dissolved oxygen concentration in the medium remains between 0 and 10% of saturation. Substantially anaerobic conditions also includes growing or resting cells in liquid medium or on solid agar inside a sealed chamber maintained with an atmosphere of less than 1% oxygen. The percent of oxygen can be maintained by, for example, sparging the culture with an N₂/CO₂ mixture or other suitable non-oxygen gas or gases.

The culture conditions described herein can be scaled up and grown continuously for manufacturing of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. Exemplary growth procedures include, for example, fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation. All of these processes are well known in the art. Fermentation procedures are particularly useful for the biosynthetic production of commercial quantities of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. Generally, and as with non-continuous culture procedures, the continuous and/or near-continuous production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid will include culturing a non-naturally occurring 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producing organism of the invention in sufficient nutrients and medium to sustain and/or nearly sustain growth in an exponential phase. Continuous culture under such conditions can include, for example, 1 day, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 days or more. Additionally, continuous culture can include 1 week, 2, 3, 4 or 5 or more weeks and up to several months. Alternatively, organisms of the invention can be cultured for hours, if suitable for a particular application. It is to be understood that the continuous and/or near-continuous culture conditions also can include all time intervals in between these exemplary periods. It is further understood that the time of culturing the microbial organism of the invention is for a sufficient period of time to produce a sufficient amount of product for a desired purpose.

Fermentation procedures are well known in the art. Briefly, fermentation for the biosynthetic production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be utilized in, for example, fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation. Examples of batch and continuous fermentation procedures are well known in the art.

In addition to the above fermentation procedures using the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producers of the invention for continuous production of substantial quantities of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, the 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid producers also can be, for example, simultaneously subjected to chemical synthesis procedures to convert the product to other compounds or the product can be separated from the fermentation culture and sequentially subjected to chemical conversion to convert the product to other compounds, if desired. As described herein, an intermediate in the adipate pathway utilizing 3-oxoadipate, hexa-2-enedioate, can be converted to adipate, for example, by chemical hydrogenation over a platinum catalyst (see Example III).

As described herein, exemplary growth conditions for achieving biosynthesis of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid includes the addition of an osmoprotectant to the culturing conditions. In certain embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be sustained, cultured or fermented as described above in the presence of an osmoprotectant. Briefly, an osmoprotectant means a compound that acts as an osmolyte and helps a microbial organism as described herein survive osmotic stress. Osmoprotectants include, but are not limited to, betaines, amino acids, and the sugar trehalose. Non-limiting examples of such are glycine betaine, praline betaine, dimethylthetin, dimethylslfonioproprionate, 3-dimethylsulfonio-2-methylproprionate, pipecolic acid, dimethylsulfonioacetate, choline, L-carnitine and ectoine. In one aspect, the osmoprotectant is glycine betaine. It is understood to one of ordinary skill in the art that the amount and type of osmoprotectant suitable for protecting a microbial organism described herein from osmotic stress will depend on the microbial organism used. For example, as described in Example XXII, Escherichia coli in the presence of varying amounts of 6-aminocaproic acid is suitably grown in the presence of 2 mM glycine betaine. The amount of osmoprotectant in the culturing conditions can be, for example, no more than about 0.1 mM, no more than about 0.5 mM, no more than about 1.0 mM, no more than about 1.5 mM, no more than about 2.0 mM, no more than about 2.5 mM, no more than about 3.0 mM, no more than about 5.0 mM, no more than about 7.0 mM, no more than about 10 mM, no more than about 50 mM, no more than about 100 mM or no more than about 500 mM.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling can be utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling can also be used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid.

One computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthesis of a desired product is the OptKnock computational framework, Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003). OptKnock is a metabolic modeling and simulation program that suggests gene deletion strategies that result in genetically stable microorganisms which overproduce the target product. Specifically, the framework examines the complete metabolic and/or biochemical network of a microorganism in order to suggest genetic manipulations that force the desired biochemical to become an obligatory byproduct of cell growth. By coupling biochemical production with cell growth through strategically placed gene deletions or other functional gene disruption, the growth selection pressures imposed on the engineered strains after long periods of time in a bioreactor lead to improvements in performance as a result of the compulsory growth-coupled biochemical production. Lastly, when gene deletions are constructed there is a negligible possibility of the designed strains reverting to their wild-type states because the genes selected by OptKnock are to be completely removed from the genome. Therefore, this computational methodology can be used to either identify alternative pathways that lead to biosynthesis of a desired product or used in connection with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms for further optimization of biosynthesis of a desired product.

The concept of growth-coupled biochemical production can be visualized in the context of the biochemical production envelopes of a typical metabolic network calculated using an in silico model. These limits are obtained by fixing the uptake rate(s) of the limiting substrate(s) to their experimentally measured value(s) and calculating the maximum and minimum rates of biochemical production at each attainable level of growth. Although exceptions exist, typically the production of a desired biochemical is in direct competition with biomass formation for intracellular resources. Thus, enhanced rates of biochemical production will necessarily result in sub-maximal growth rates. The knockouts suggested by OptKnock are designed to restrict the allowable solution boundaries forcing a change in metabolic behavior from the wild-type strain. Although the actual solution boundaries for a given strain will expand or contract as the substrate uptake rate(s) increase or decrease, each experimental point should lie within its calculated solution boundary. Plots such as these allow one to visualize how close strains are to their performance limits or, in other words, how much room is available for improvement. The OptKnock framework has already been able to identify promising gene deletion strategies for biochemical overproduction, (Burgard et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84(6):647-657 (2003); Pharkya et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84(7):887-899 (2003)) and establishes a systematic framework that will naturally encompass future improvements in metabolic and regulatory modeling frameworks.

Briefly, OptKnock is a term used herein to refer to a computational method and system for modeling cellular metabolism. The OptKnock program relates to a framework of models and methods that incorporate particular constraints into flux balance analysis (FBA) models. These constraints include, for example, qualitative kinetic information, qualitative regulatory information, and/or DNA microarray experimental data. OptKnock also computes solutions to various metabolic problems by, for example, tightening the flux boundaries derived through flux balance models and subsequently probing the performance limits of metabolic networks in the presence of gene additions or deletions. OptKnock computational framework allows the construction of model formulations that enable an effective query of the performance limits of metabolic networks and provides methods for solving the resulting mixed-integer linear programming problems. The metabolic modeling and simulation method referred to herein as OptKnock are described in, for example, U.S. publication 2002/0168654, filed Jan. 10, 2002, in International Patent No. PCT/US02/00660, filed Jan. 10, 2002, and U.S. patent application serial No. 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007.

Another computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthetic production of a product is a metabolic modeling and simulation system termed SimPheny®. This computational method and system is described in, for example, U.S. publication 2003/0233218, filed Jun. 14, 2002, and in International Patent Application No. PCT/US03/18838, filed Jun. 13, 2003. SimPheny® is a computational system that can be used to produce a network model in silico and to simulate the flux of mass, energy or charge through the chemical reactions of a biological system to define a solution space that contains any and all possible functionalities of the chemical reactions in the system, thereby determining a range of allowed activities for the biological system. This approach is referred to as constraints-based modeling because the solution space is defined by constraints such as the known stoichiometry of the included reactions as well as reaction thermodynamic and capacity constraints associated with maximum fluxes through reactions. The space defined by these constraints can be interrogated to determine the phenotypic capabilities and behavior of the biological system or of its biochemical components. Analysis methods such as convex analysis, linear programming and the calculation of extreme pathways as described, for example, in Schilling et al., J. Theon. Biol. 203:229-248 (2000); Schilling et al., Biotech. Bioeng. 71:286-306 (2000) and Schilling et al., Biotech. Prog. 15:288-295 (1999), can be used to determine such phenotypic capabilities.

As described above, one constraints-based method used in the computational programs applicable to the invention is flux balance analysis. Flux balance analysis is based on flux balancing in a steady state condition and can be performed as described in, for example, Varma and Palsson, Biotech. Bioeng. 12:994-998 (1994). Flux balance approaches have been applied to reaction networks to simulate or predict systemic properties of, for example, adipocyte metabolism as described in Fell and Small, J. Biochem. 138:781-786 (1986), acetate secretion from E. coli under ATP maximization conditions as described in Majewski and Domach, Biotech. Bioeng. 35:732-738 (1990) or ethanol secretion by yeast as described in Vanrolleghem et al., Biotech. Prog. 12:434-448 (1996). Additionally, this approach can be used to predict or simulate the growth of S. cerevisiae on a variety of single-carbon sources as well as the metabolism of H. influenzae as described in Edwards and Palsson, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97:5528-5533 (2000), Edwards and Palsson, J. Bio. Chem. 274:17410-17416 (1999) and Edwards et al., Nature Biotech. 19:125-130 (2001).

Once the solution space has been defined, it can be analyzed to determine possible solutions under various conditions. This computational approach is consistent with biological realities because biological systems are flexible and can reach the same result in many different ways. Biological systems are designed through evolutionary mechanisms that have been restricted by fundamental constraints that all living systems must face. Therefore, constraints-based modeling strategy embraces these general realities. Further, the ability to continuously impose further restrictions on a network model via the tightening of constraints results in a reduction in the size of the solution space, thereby enhancing the precision with which physiological performance or phenotype can be predicted.

These computational approaches are consistent with biological realities because biological systems are flexible and can reach the same result in many different ways. Biological systems are designed through evolutionary mechanisms that have been restricted by fundamental constraints that all living systems must face. Therefore, constraints-based modeling strategy embraces these general realities. Further, the ability to continuously impose further restrictions on a network model via the tightening of constraints results in a reduction in the size of the solution space, thereby enhancing the precision with which physiological performance or phenotype can be predicted.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will be able to apply various computational frameworks for metabolic modeling and simulation to design and implement biosynthesis of a desired compound in host microbial organisms. Such metabolic modeling and simulation methods include, for example, the computational systems exemplified above as SimPheny® and OptKnock. For illustration of the invention, some methods are described herein with reference to the OptKnock computation framework for modeling and simulation. Those skilled in the art will know how to apply the identification, design and implementation of the metabolic alterations using OptKnock to any of such other metabolic modeling and simulation computational frameworks and methods well known in the art.

The ability of a cell or organism to obligatory couple growth to the production of a biochemical product can be illustrated in the context of the biochemical production limits of a typical metabolic network calculated using an in silico model. These limits are obtained by fixing the uptake rate(s) of the limiting substrate(s) to their experimentally measured value(s) and calculating the maximum and minimum rates of biochemical production at each attainable level of growth. tThe production of a desired biochemical generally is in direct competition with biomass formation for intracellular resources. Under these circumstances, enhanced rates of biochemical production will necessarily result in sub-maximal growth rates. The knockouts suggested by the above metabolic modeling and simulation programs such as OptKnock are designed to restrict the allowable solution boundaries forcing a change in metabolic behavior from the wild-type strain. Although the actual solution boundaries for a given strain will expand or contract as the substrate uptake rate(s) increase or decrease, each experimental point will lie within its calculated solution boundary. Plots such as these allow accurate predictions of how close the designed strains are to their performance limits which also indicates how much room is available for improvement.

The OptKnock mathematical framework is exemplified herein for pinpointing gene deletions leading to growth-coupled biochemical production (see Example XXX). The procedure builds upon constraint-based metabolic modeling which narrows the range of possible phenotypes that a cellular system can display through the successive imposition of governing physico-chemical constraints, Price et al., Nat Rev Microbiol, 2: 886-97 (2004). As described above, constraint-based models and simulations are well known in the art and generally invoke the optimization of a particular cellular objective, subject to network stoichiometry, to suggest a likely flux distribution.

Briefly, the maximization of a cellular objective quantified as an aggregate reaction flux for a steady state metabolic network comprising a set N={1, . . . , N} of metabolites and a set M={1, . . . , M} of metabolic reactions is expressed mathematically as follows:

     maximize  v_(cellular  objective) $\mspace{79mu}{{{{subject}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M}\;{S_{ij}v_{j}}}} = 0},\mspace{14mu}{\forall{i \in N}}}$ v_(substrate) = v_(substrate_uptake)  mmol/gDW ⋅ hr  ∀i ∈ {limiting  substrate(s)}      v_(atp) ≥ v_(atp_main)mmol/gDW ⋅ hr      v_(j) ≥ 0,  ∀j ∈ {irrev.  reactions} where S_(ij) is the stoichiometric coefficient of metabolite i in reaction j, v_(j) is the flux of reaction j, v_(substrate) _(_) _(uptake) represents the assumed or measured uptake rate(s) of the limiting substrate(s), and v_(atp) _(—main) is the non-growth associated ATP maintenance requirement. The vector v includes both internal and external fluxes. In this study, the cellular objective is often assumed to be a drain of biosynthetic precursors in the ratios required for biomass formation, Neidhardt, F. C. et al., 2nd ed. 1996, Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. 2 v. (xx, 2822, lxxvi). The fluxes are generally reported per 1 gDW·hr (gram of dry weight times hour) such that biomass formation is expressed as g biomass produced/gDW·hr or 1/hr.

The modeling of gene deletions, and thus reaction elimination, first employs the incorporation of binary variables into the constraint-based approach framework, Burgard et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 74: 364-375 (2001), Burgard et al., Biotechnol Prog, 17: 791-797 (2001). These binary variables,

$y_{j} = \left\{ {\begin{matrix} {1,{{if}\mspace{14mu}{reaction}\mspace{14mu}{flux}\mspace{14mu} v_{j}\mspace{14mu}{is}\mspace{14mu}{active}}} \\ {0,{{if}\mspace{14mu}{reaction}\mspace{14mu}{flux}\mspace{14mu} v_{j}\mspace{14mu}{is}\mspace{14mu}{not}\mspace{14mu}{active}}} \end{matrix},\mspace{14mu}{\forall{j \in \; M}}} \right.$ assume a value of 1 if reaction j is active and a value of 0 if it is inactive. The following constraint, v _(j) ^(min) ·y _(j) ≦v _(j) ≦v _(j) ^(max) ·y _(j) , ∀jεM ensures that reaction flux v_(j) is set to zero only if variable y_(j) is equal to zero. Alternatively, when y_(j) is equal to one, v_(j) is free to assume any value between a lower v_(j) ^(min) and an upper v_(j) ^(max) bound. Here, v_(j) ^(min) and v_(j) ^(max) are identified by minimizing and maximizing, respectively, every reaction flux subject to the network constraints described above, Mahadevan et al., Metab Eng, 5: 264-76 (2003).

Optimal gene/reaction knockouts are identified by solving a bilevel optimization problem that chooses the set of active reactions (y_(j)=1) such that an optimal growth solution for the resulting network overproduces the chemical of interest. Schematically, this bilevel optimization problem is illustrated in FIG. 2. Mathematically, this bilevel optimization problem is expressed as the following bilevel mixed-integer optimization problem:

$\begin{matrix} \underset{y_{j}}{maximize} & v_{chemical} & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & \; & ({OptKnock}) \end{matrix}$ $\begin{pmatrix} {{\underset{vj}{subject}\mspace{14mu}{to}}\mspace{14mu}} & {maximize} & v_{biomass} & \; \\ \; & {{subject}\mspace{14mu}{to}} & {{{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M}\;{S_{ij}v_{j}}} = 0},} & {\forall{i \in N}} \\ \; & \; & {v_{substrate} = v_{substrate\_ uptake}} & {\forall{i \in \left\{ {{limiting}\mspace{14mu}{{substrate}(s)}} \right\}}} \\ \; & \; & {v_{atp} \geq v_{atp\_ main}} & \; \\ \; & \; & {v_{biomass} \geq v_{biomass}^{target}} & \; \end{pmatrix}$      v_(j)^(min) ⋅ y_(j) ≤ v_(j) ≤ v_(j)^(max) ⋅ y_(j),  ∀j ∈ M $\mspace{79mu}{{\sum\limits_{j \in M^{forward}}\;\left( {1 - y_{j}} \right)} = K}$      y_(j) ∈ {0, 1},  ∀j ∈ M where v_(chemical) is the production of the desired target product, for example adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA, or other biochemical product, and K is the number of allowable knockouts. Note that setting K equal to zero returns the maximum biomass solution of the complete network, while setting K equal to one identifies the single gene/reaction knockout (y_(j)=0) such that the resulting network involves the maximum overproduction given its maximum biomass yield. The final constraint ensures that the resulting network meets a minimum biomass yield. Burgard et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84: 647-57 (2003), provide a more detailed description of the model formulation and solution procedure. Problems containing hundreds of binary variables can be solved in the order of minutes to hours using CPLEX 8.0, GAMS: The Solver Manuals. 2003: GAMS Development Corporation, accessed via the GAMS, Brooke et al., GAMS Development Corporation (1998), modeling environment on an IBM RS6000-270 workstation. The OptKnock framework has already been able to identify promising gene deletion strategies for biochemical overproduction, Burgard et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84: 647-57 (2003), Pharkya et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84: 887-899 (2003), and establishes a systematic framework that will naturally encompass future improvements in metabolic and regulatory modeling frameworks.

The methods described above will provide one set of metabolic reactions to disrupt. Elimination of each reaction within the set or metabolic modification can result in a desired product as an obligatory product during the growth phase of the organism. Because the reactions are known, a solution to the bilevel OptKnock problem also will provide the associated gene or genes encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze each reaction within the set of reactions. Identification of a set of reactions and their corresponding genes encoding the enzymes participating in each reaction is generally an automated process, accomplished through correlation of the reactions with a reaction database having a relationship between enzymes and encoding genes.

Once identified, the set of reactions that are to be disrupted in order to achieve production of a desired product are implemented in the target cell or organism by functional disruption of at least one gene encoding each metabolic reaction within the set. One particularly useful means to achieve functional disruption of the reaction set is by deletion of each encoding gene. However, in some instances, it can be beneficial to disrupt the reaction by other genetic aberrations including, for example, mutation, deletion of regulatory regions such as promoters or cis binding sites for regulatory factors, or by truncation of the coding sequence at any of a number of locations. These latter aberrations, resulting in less than total deletion of the gene set can be useful, for example, when rapid assessments of the coupling of a product are desired or when genetic reversion is less likely to occur.

To identify additional productive solutions to the above described bilevel OptKnock problem which lead to further sets of reactions to disrupt or metabolic modifications that can result in the biosynthesis, including growth-coupled biosynthesis of a desired product, an optimization method, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This method proceeds by iteratively solving the OptKnock problem exemplified above with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration. Integer cut constraints effectively prevent the solution procedure from choosing the exact same set of reactions identified in any previous iteration that obligatorily couples product biosynthesis to growth. For example, if a previously identified growth-coupled metabolic modification specifies reactions 1, 2, and 3 for disruption, then the following constraint prevents the same reactions from being simultaneously considered in subsequent solutions. The integer cut method is well known in the art and can be found described in, for example, Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 17:791-797 (2001). As with all methods described herein with reference to their use in combination with the OptKnock computational framework for metabolic modeling and simulation, the integer cut method of reducing redundancy in iterative computational analysis also can be applied with other computational frameworks well known in the art including, for example, SimPheny®.

The methods exemplified herein allow the construction of cells and organisms that biosynthetically produce a desired product, including the obligatory coupling of production of a target biochemical product to growth of the cell or organism engineered to harbor the identified genetic alterations. Therefore, the computational methods described herein allow the identification and implementation of metabolic modifications that are identified by an in silico method selected from OptKnock or SimPheny®. The set of metabolic modifications can include, for example, addition of one or more biosynthetic pathway enzymes and/or functional disruption of one or more metabolic reactions including, for example, disruption by gene deletion.

As discussed above, the OptKnock methodology was developed on the premise that mutant microbial networks can be evolved towards their computationally predicted maximum-growth phenotypes when subjected to long periods of growth selection. In other words, the approach leverages an organism's ability to self-optimize under selective pressures. The OptKnock framework allows for the exhaustive enumeration of gene deletion combinations that force a coupling between biochemical production and cell growth based on network stoichiometry. The identification of optimal gene/reaction knockouts requires the solution of a bilevel optimization problem that chooses the set of active reactions such that an optimal growth solution for the resulting network overproduces the biochemical of interest (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003)).

An in silico stoichiometric model of E. coli metabolism can be employed to identify essential genes for metabolic pathways as exemplified previously and described in, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379. As disclosed herein, the OptKnock mathematical framework can be applied to pinpoint gene deletions leading to the growth-coupled production of a desired product. Further, the solution of the bilevel OptKnock problem provides only one set of deletions. To enumerate all meaningful solutions, that is, all sets of knockouts leading to growth-coupled production formation, an optimization technique, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This entails iteratively solving the OptKnock problem with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration, as discussed above.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that to disrupt an enzymatic reaction the catalytic activity of the one or more enzymes involved in the reaction is to be disrupted. Disruption can occur by a variety of means including, for example, deletion of an encoding gene or incorporation of a genetic alteration in one or more of the encoding gene sequences. The encoding genes targeted for disruption can be one, some, or all of the genes encoding enzymes involved in the catalytic activity. For example, where a single enzyme is involved in a targeted catalytic activity disruption can occur by a genetic alteration that reduces or destroys the catalytic activity of the encoded gene product. Similarly, where the single enzyme is multimeric, including heteromeric, disruption can occur by a genetic alteration that reduces or destroys the function of one or all subunits of the encoded gene products. Destruction of activity can be accomplished by loss of the binding activity of one or more subunits in order to form an active complex, by destruction of the catalytic subunit of the multimeric complex or by both. Other functions of multimeric protein association and activity also can be targeted in order to disrupt a metabolic reaction of the invention. Such other functions are well known to those skilled in the art. Further, some or all of the functions of a single polypeptide or multimeric complex can be disrupted according to the invention in order to reduce or abolish the catalytic activity of one or more enzymes involved in a reaction or metabolic modification of the invention. Similarly, some or all of enzymes involved in a reaction or metabolic modification of the invention can be disrupted so long as the targeted reaction is reduced or eliminated.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art also will understand that an enzymatic reaction can be disrupted by reducing or eliminating reactions encoded by a common gene and/or by one or more orthologs of that gene exhibiting similar or substantially the same activity. Reduction of both the common gene and all orthologs can lead to complete abolishment of any catalytic activity of a targeted reaction. However, disruption of either the common gene or one or more orthologs can lead to a reduction in the catalytic activity of the targeted reaction sufficient to promote coupling of growth to product biosynthesis. Exemplified herein are both the common genes encoding catalytic activities for a variety of metabolic modifications as well as their orthologs. Those skilled in the art will understand that disruption of some or all of the genes encoding a enzyme of a targeted metabolic reaction can be practiced in the methods of the invention and incorporated into the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention in order to achieve the growth-coupled product production. Exemplary disruptions to confer increased production of adipate, 6-ACA and/or HMDA are described in Example XXX and Tables 14-16.

Employing the methods exemplified above, the methods of the invention allow the construction of cells and organisms that increase production of a desired product, for example, by coupling the production of a desired product to growth of the cell or organism engineered to harbor the identified genetic alterations. As disclosed herein, metabolic alterations have been identified that couple the production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid to growth of the organism. Microbial organism strains constructed with the identified metabolic alterations produce elevated levels, relative to the absence of the metabolic alterations, of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid during the exponential growth phase. These strains can be beneficially used for the commercial production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid in continuous fermentation process without being subjected to the negative selective pressures described previously. Although exemplified herein as metabolic alterations, in particular one or more gene disruptions, that confer growth coupled production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, it is understood that any gene disruption that increases the production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be introduced into a host microbial organism, as desired.

Therefore, the methods of the invention provide a set of metabolic modifications that are identified by an in silico method such as OptKnock. The set of metabolic modifications can include functional disruption of one or more metabolic reactions including, for example, disruption by gene deletion. For 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid production, metabolic modifications can be selected from the set of metabolic modifications listed in Tables 14-16 (see Example XXX).

Also provided is a method of producing a non-naturally occurring microbial organisms having stable growth-coupled production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. The method can include identifying in silico a set of metabolic modifications that increase production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, for example, increase production during exponential growth; genetically modifying an organism to contain the set of metabolic modifications that increase production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, and culturing the genetically modified organism. If desired, culturing can include adaptively evolving the genetically modified organism under conditions requiring production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. The methods of the invention are applicable to bacterium, yeast and fungus as well as a variety of other cells and microorganism, as disclosed herein.

Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprising one or more gene disruptions that confer increased production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. In one embodiment, the one or more gene disruptions confer growth-coupled production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, and can, for example, confer stable growth-coupled production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. In another embodiment, the one or more gene disruptions can confer obligatory coupling of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid production to growth of the microbial organism. Such one or more gene disruptions reduce the activity of the respective one or more encoded enzymes.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organism can have one or more gene disruptions included in a metabolic modification listed in Tables 14-16. As disclosed herein, the one or more gene disruptions can be a deletion. Such non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention include bacteria, yeast, fungus, or any of a variety of other microorganisms applicable to fermentation processes, as disclosed herein.

Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising one or more gene disruptions, where the one or more gene disruptions occur in genes encoding proteins or enzymes where the one or more gene disruptions confer increased production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid in the organism. The production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be growth-coupled or not growth-coupled. In a particular embodiment, the production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid can be obligatorily coupled to growth of the organism, as disclosed herein.

The invention provides non naturally occurring microbial organisms having genetic alterations such as gene disruptions that increase production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid, for example, growth-coupled production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid. Product production can be, for example, obligatorily linked to the exponential growth phase of the microorganism by genetically altering the metabolic pathways of the cell, as disclosed herein. The genetic alterations can increase the production of the desired product or even make the desired product an obligatory product during the growth phase. Sets of metabolic alterations or transformations that result in increased production and elevated levels of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid biosynthesis are exemplified in Tables 14-16 (see Example XXX). Each alteration within a set corresponds to the requisite metabolic reaction that should be functionally disrupted. Functional disruption of all reactions within each set can result in the increased production of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid by the engineered strain during the growth phase. The corresponding reactions to the referenced alterations can be found in Tables 14-16 (see Example XXX), and the gene or genes that encode enzymes or proteins that carry out the reactions are set forth in Tables 14-16.

For example, for each strain exemplified in Tables 14-16, the metabolic alterations that can be generated for 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid production are shown in each row. These alterations include the functional disruption of the reactions shown in Tables 14-16. Each of these non-naturally occurring alterations result in increased production and an enhanced level of 6-aminocaproic acid, caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine or levulinic acid production, for example, during the exponential growth phase of the microbial organism, compared to a strain that does not contain such metabolic alterations, under appropriate culture conditions. Appropriate conditions include, for example, those disclosed herein, including conditions such as particular carbon sources or reactant availabilities and/or adaptive evolution.

It is understood that modifications which do not substantially affect the activity of the various embodiments of this invention are also provided within the definition of the invention provided herein. Accordingly, the following examples are intended to illustrate but not limit the present invention.

EXAMPLE I Reverse Adipate Degradation Pathway

This example describes an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway via a reverse adipate degradation pathway.

Organisms such as Penicillium chrysogenum have the ability to naturally degrade adipate (Thykaer et al., Metab. Eng. 4:151-158. (2002)). The mechanism is similar to the oxidation of fatty acids (see FIG. 1). The first step in adipate degradation is an ATP-dependent reaction that activates adipate with CoA. The second reaction is catalyzed by a dehydrogenase that forms 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA from adipyl-CoA. During peroxisomal adipate degradation, the dehydrogenase enzyme contains FAD, which accepts the electrons and then transfers them directly to oxygen. A catalase enzyme dissipates the H₂O₂ formed by the reduction of oxygen. In mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, the FAD from the dehydrogenase transfers electrons directly to the electron transport chain. A multi-functional fatty acid oxidation protein in eukaryotes such as S. cerevisiae and P. chrysogenum carries out the following hydratase and dehydrogenase steps. The final step is an acyl transferase that splits 3-oxoadipyl CoA into acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA.

A highly efficient pathway for the production of adipate is achieved through genetically altering a microorganism such that similar enzymatic reactions are employed for adipate synthesis from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA (see FIG. 2). Successful implementation of this entails expressing the appropriate genes, tailoring their expression, and altering culture conditions so that high acetyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA, and/or redox (for example, NADH/NAD+) ratios will drive the metabolic flux through this pathway in the direction of adipate synthesis rather than degradation. Strong parallels to butyrate formation in Clostridia (Kanehisa and Goto, Nucl. Acids Res. 28:27-30 (2000)) support that each step in the adipate synthesis pathway is thermodynamically feasible with reaction directionality governed by the concentrations of the participating metabolites. The final step, which forms adipate from adipyl-CoA, can take place either via a synthetase, phosphotransadipylase/kinase, transferase, or hydrolase mechanism.

The maximum theoretical yields of adipate using this pathway were calculated both in the presence and absence of an external electron acceptor such as oxygen. These calculations show that the pathway can efficiently transform glucose into adipate and CO₂ under anaerobic conditions with a 92% molar yield (Table 1). The production of adipate using this pathway does not require the uptake of oxygen as NAD+ can be regenerated in the two hydrogenase steps that form 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA and adipyl-CoA (see FIG. 2). Further, the pathway is favorable energetically as up to 1.55 moles of ATP are formed per mole of glucose consumed at the maximum theoretical yield of adipate assuming either a synthetase, phosphotransadipylase/kinase, or transferase mechanism for the final conversion step. The ATP yield can be further improved to 2.47 moles of ATP produced per mole of glucose if phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PPCK) is assumed to function in the ATP-generating direction towards oxaloacetate formation. Maximum ATP yield calculations were then performed assuming that the adipyl-CoA to adipate transformation is a hydrolysis step. This reduces the maximum ATP yields at maximum adipate production to 0.85 and 1.77 mole ATP per mole glucose consumed if PPCK is assumed irreversible and reversible, respectively. Nevertheless, these ATP yields are sufficient for cell growth, maintenance, and production.

TABLE 1 The maximum theoretical yields of adipate and the associated ATP yields per mole of glucose using the reverse degradation pathway assuming the final step in the pathway is a synthetase, phosphotransadipylase/kinase, or transferase. Aerobic Anaerobic Adipate Yield 0.92 0.92 Max ATP yield @ max adipate yield 1.55 1.55 Max ATP yield @ max adipate yield 2.47 2.47 PPCK assumed

Successfully engineering this pathway involves identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity. This entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation. To engineer a production host for the production of adipate, one or more exogenous DNA sequence(s) are expressed in a suitable host microorganism. In addition, the microorganisms can have endogenous gene(s) functionally deleted. These modifications allow the production of adipate using renewable feedstock.

Below is described a number of biochemically characterized candidate genes that encode enzymes that catalyze each step of the reverse adipate degradation pathway in a production host. Although described using E. coli as a host organism to engineer the pathway, essentially any suitable host organism can be used. Specifically listed are genes that are native to E. coli as well as genes in other organisms that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations when properly cloned and expressed.

Referring to FIG. 2, step 1 involves succinyl CoA:acetyl CoA acyl transferase (β-ketothiolase). The first step in the pathway combines acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA to form 3-oxoadipyl-CoA. The gene products encoded by pcaF in Pseudomonas strain B 13 (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002)), phaD in Pseudomonas putida U (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)), paaE in Pseudomonas fluorescens ST (Di Gennaro et al., Arch. Microbiol. 188:117-125 (2007)), and paaJ from E. coli (Nogales et al., Microbiol. 153:357-365 (2007)) catalyze the conversion of 3-oxoadipyl-CoA into succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA during the degradation of aromatic compounds such as phenylacetate or styrene. Since β-ketothiolase enzymes catalyze reversible transformations, these enzymes can be employed for the first step in adipate synthesis shown in FIG. 2. For example, the ketothiolase phaA from R. eutropha combines two molecules of acetyl-CoA to form acetoacetyl-CoA (Sato et al., J. Biosci. Bioengineer. 103:38-44 (2007)). Similarly, a β-keto thiolase (bktB) has been reported to catalyze the condensation of acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA to form β-ketovaleryl-CoA (Slater et al., J. Bacteriol. 180: 1979-1987 (1998)) in R. eutropha. Additional candidates are found in Burkholderia ambifaria AMMD. The protein sequences for the above-mentioned gene products are well known in the art and can be accessed in the public databases such as GenBank using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism paaJ 16129358 NP_415915.1 Escherichia coli pcaF 17736947 AAL02407 Pseudomonas knackmussii (B13) phaD 3253200 AAC24332.1 Pseudomonas putida paaE 106636097 ABF82237.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens Bamb_0447 115350501 YP_772340 Burkholderia ambifaria AMMD

These exemplary sequences can be used to identify homologue proteins in GenBank or other databases through sequence similarity searches (for example, BLASTp). The resulting homologue proteins and their corresponding gene sequences provide additional exogenous DNA sequences for transformation into E. coli or other suitable host microorganisms to generate production hosts.

For example, orthologs of paaJ from Escherichia coli K12 can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GI# GenBank Accession # Organism 152970031 YP_001335140.1 Klebsiella pneumoniae 157371321 YP_001479310.1 Serratia proteamaculans 3253200 AAC24332.1 Pseudomonas putida

Example orthologs of pcaF from Pseudomonas knackmussii can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GI# GenBank Accession # Organism 4530443 AAD22035.1 Streptomyces sp. 2065 24982839 AAN67000.1 Pseudomonas putida 115589162 ABJ15177.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Additional native candidate genes for the ketothiolase step include atoB, which can catalyze the reversible condensation of 2 acetyl-CoA molecules (Sato et al., J. Biosci. Bioengineer. 103:38-44 (2007)), and its homolog yqeF. Non-native gene candidates include phaA (Sato et al., supra, 2007) and bktB (Slater et al., J. Bacteriol. 180:1979-1987 (1998)) from R. eutropha, and the two ketothiolases, thiA and thiB, from Clostridium acetobutylicum (Winzer et al., J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2:531-541 (2000)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism atoB 16130161 NP_416728.1 Escherichia coli yqeF 90111494 NP_417321.2 Escherichia coli phaA 113867452 YP_725941 Ralstonia eutropha bktB 3046397 AAC38322.1 Ralstonia eutropha thiA 15896127 NP_349476.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum thiB 15004782 NP_149242.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum

It is less desirable to use the thiolase-encoding genes fadA and fadB, genes in fatty acid degradation pathway in E. coli, in this exemplary pathway. These genes form a complex that encodes for multiple activities, most of which are not desired in this pathway.

Referring to FIG. 2, step 2 involves 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase. The second step in the pathway involves the reduction of 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA. The gene products encoded by phaC in Pseudomonas putida U (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)) and paaC in Pseudomonas fluorescens ST (Di Gennaro et al., Arch. Microbiol. 188:117-125 (2007)) catalyze the reverse reaction, that is, the oxidation of 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to form 3-oxoadipyl-CoA, during the catabolism of phenylacetate or styrene. The reactions catalyzed by such dehydrogenases are reversible and accordingly these genes represent candidates to carry out the second step of adipate synthesis as shown in FIG. 2. A similar transformation is also carried out by the gene product of hbd in Clostridium acetobutylicum (Atsumi et al., Metab. Eng. (epub Sep. 14, 2007); Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)). This enzyme converts acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. Lastly, given the proximity in E. coli of paaH to other genes in the phenylacetate degradation operon (Nogales et al., Microbiol. 153:357-365 (2007)) and the fact that paaH mutants cannot grow on phenylacetate (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003)), it is expected that the E. coli paaH gene encodes a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase. The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism paaH 16129356 NP_415913.1 Escherichia coli phaC 26990000 NP_745425.1 Pseudomonas putida paaC 106636095 ABF82235.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens hbd 15895965 NP_349314.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum

Referring to FIG. 2, step 3 involves 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase. The gene product of crt from C. acetobutylicum catalyzes the dehydration of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA (see FIG. 2) (Atsumi et al., supra, 2007; Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)). Homologs of this gene are strong candidates for carrying out the third step in the adipate synthesis pathway exemplified in FIG. 2. In addition, genes known to catalyze the hydroxylation of double bonds in enoyl-CoA compounds represent additional candidates given the reversibility of such enzymatic transformations. For example, the enoyl-CoA hydratases, phaA and phaB, of P. putida are believed to carry out the hydroxylation of double bonds during phenylacetate catabolism (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)) and thus represent additional candidates for incorporation into E. coli. The deletion of these genes precludes phenylacetate degradation in P. putida. The paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens catalyze analogous transformations (Olivera et al., supra, 1998). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC (Park and Lee, J. Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397 (2003)), paaF (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park and Lee, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:681-686 (2004); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 113-116:335-346 (2004)), and paaG (Ismail et al., supra, 2003; Park and Lee, supra, 2004; Park and Lee, supra, 2004). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism maoC 16129348 NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli paaF 16129354 NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli paaG 16129355 NP_415912.1 Escherichia coli cr 15895969 NP_349318.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum paaA 26990002 NP_745427.1 Pseudomonas putida paaB 26990001 NP_745426.1 Pseudomonas putida phaA 106636093 ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens phaB 106636094 ABF82234.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens

Alternatively, beta-oxidation genes are candidates for the first three steps in adipate synthesis. Candidate genes for the proposed adipate synthesis pathway also include the native fatty acid oxidation genes of E. coli and their homologs in other organisms. The E. coli genes fadA and fadB encode a multienzyme complex that exhibits ketoacyl-CoA thiolase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and enoyl-CoA hydratase activities (Yang et al., Biochem. 30:6788-6795 (1991); Yang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 265:10424-10429 (1990); Yang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 266:16255 (1991); Nakahigashi and Inokuchi, Nucl. Acids Res. 18: 4937 (1990)). These activities are mechanistically similar to the first three transformations shown in FIG. 2. The fadI and fadJ genes encode similar functions and are naturally expressed only anaerobically (Campbell et al., Mol. Microbiol. 47:793-805 (2003)). These gene products naturally operate to degrade short, medium, and long chain fatty-acyl-CoA compounds to acetyl-CoA, rather than to convert succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA into 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA as proposed in FIG. 2. However, it is well known that the ketoacyl-CoA thiolase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and enoyl-CoA hydratase enzymes catalyze reversible transformations. Furthermore, directed evolution and related approaches can be applied to tailor the substrate specificities of the native beta-oxidation machinery of E. coli. Thus these enzymes or homologues thereof can be applied for adipate production. If the native genes operate to degrade adipate or its precursors in vivo, the appropriate genetic modifications are made to attenuate or eliminate these functions. However, it may not be necessary since a method for producing poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] in E. coli that involves activating fadB, by knocking out a negative regulator, fadR, and co-expressing a non-native ketothiolase, phaA from Ralstonia eutropha, has been described (Sato et al., J. Biosci. Bioeng. 103:38-44 (2007)). This work clearly demonstrated that a beta-oxidation enzyme, in particular the gene product of fadB which encodes both 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase and enoyl-CoA hydratase activities, can function as part of a pathway to produce longer chain molecules from acetyl-CoA precursors. The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism fadA 49176430 YP_026272.1 Escherichia coli fadB 16131692 NP_418288.1 Escherichia coli fadI 16130275 NP_416844.1 Escherichia coli fadJ 16130274 NP_416843.1 Escherichia coli fadR 16129150 NP_415705.1 Escherichia coli

Referring to FIG. 2, step 4 involves 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase. Whereas the ketothiolase, dehydrogenase, and enoyl-CoA hydratase steps are generally reversible, the enoyl-CoA reductase step is almost always oxidative and irreversible under physiological conditions (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). FadE catalyzes this likely irreversible transformation in E. coli (Campbell and Cronan, J. Bacteriol. 184:3759-3764 (2002)). The pathway requires an enzyme that can reduce a 2-enoyl-CoA intermediate, not one such as FadE that will only oxidize an acyl-CoA to a 2-enoyl-CoA compound. Furthermore, although it has been suggested that E. coli naturally possesses enzymes for enoyl-CoA reduction (Mizugaki et al., J. Biochem. 92:1649-1654 (1982); Nishimaki et al., J. Biochem. 95:1315-1321 (1984)), no E. coli gene possessing this function has been biochemically characterized.

One candidate gene for the enoyl-CoA reductase step is the gene product of bcd from C. acetobutylicum (Atsumi et al., supra, 2007; Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)), which naturally catalyzes the reduction of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA, a reaction similar in mechanism to the desired reduction of 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA in the adipate synthesis pathway. Activity of this enzyme can be enhanced by expressing bcd in conjunction with expression of the C. acetobutylicum etfAB genes, which encode an electron transfer flavoprotein. An additional candidate for the enoyl-CoA reductase step is the mitochondrial enoyl-CoA reductase from E. gracilis (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). A construct derived from this sequence following the removal of its mitochondrial targeting leader sequence was cloned in E. coli, resulting in an active enzyme (Hoffmeister et al., supra, 2005). This approach is well known to those skilled in the art of expressing eukarytotic genes, particularly those with leader sequences that may target the gene product to a specific intracellular compartment, in prokaryotic organisms. A close homolog of this gene, TDE0597, from the prokaryote Treponema denticola represents a third enoyl-CoA reductase which has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Tucci and Martin, FEBS Lett. 581:1561-1566 (2007)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism bcd 15895968 NP_349317.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfA 15895966 NP_349315.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfB 15895967 NP_349316.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum TER 62287512 Q5EU90.1 Euglena gracilis TDE0597 42526113 NP_971211.1 Treponema denticola

Referring to FIG. 2, step 5 involves adipyl-CoA synthetase (also referred to as adipate-CoA ligase), phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase, adipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase, or adipyl-CoA hydrolase. From an energetic standpoint, it is desirable for the final step in the adipate synthesis pathway to be catalyzed by an enzyme or enzyme pair that can conserve the ATP equivalent stored in the thioester bond of adipyl-CoA. The product of the sucC and sucD genes of E. coli, or homologs thereof, can potentially catalyze the final transformation shown in FIG. 2 should they exhibit activity on adipyl-CoA. The sucCD genes naturally form a succinyl-CoA synthetase complex that catalyzes the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate with the concaminant consumption of one ATP, a reaction which is reversible in vivo (Buck et al., Biochem. 24:6245-6252 (1985)). Given the structural similarity between succinate and adipate, that is, both are straight chain dicarboxylic acids, it is reasonable to expect some activity of the sucCD enzyme on adipyl-CoA. An enzyme exhibiting adipyl-CoA ligase activity can equivalently carry out the ATP-generating production of adipate from adipyl-CoA, here using AMP and PPi as cofactors, when operating in the opposite physiological direction as depicted in FIG. 1. Exemplary CoA-ligases include the rat dicarboxylate-CoA ligase for which the sequence is yet uncharacterized (Vamecq et al., Biochem. J. 230:683-693 (1985)), either of the two characterized phenylacetate-CoA ligases from P. chrysogenum (Lamas-Maceiras et al., Biochem. J. 395, 147-155 (2005); Wang et al., Biochem. Biophy. Res. Commun. 360:453-458 (2007)), the phenylacetate-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida (Martinez-Blanco et al., J. Biol. Chem. 265:7084-7090 (1990)), and the 6-carboxyhexanoate-CoA ligase from Bacilis subtilis (Bower et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:4122-4130 (1996)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism sucC 16128703 NP_415256.1 Escherichia coli sucD 1786949 AAC73823.1 Escherichia coli

Another option, using phosphotransadipylase/adipate kinase, is catalyzed by the gene products of buk1, buk2, and ptb from C. acetobutylicum (Walter et al., Gene 134:107-111 (1993); Huang et al., J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2:33-38 (2000)), or homologs thereof. The ptb gene encodes an enzyme that can convert butyryl-CoA into butyryl-phosphate, which is then converted to butyrate via either of the buk gene products with the concomitant generation of ATP. The analogous set of transformations, that is, conversion of adipyl-CoA to adipyl-phosphate followed by conversion of adipyl-phosphate to adipate, can be carried out by the buk1, buk2, and ptb gene products. The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism ptb 15896327 NP_349676 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk1 15896326 NP_349675 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk2 20137415 Q97II1 Clostridium acetobutylicum

Alternatively, an acetyltransferase capable of transferring the CoA group from adipyl-CoA to acetate can be applied. Similar transformations are catalyzed by the gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri which have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and butyryl-CoA acetyltransferase activity, respectively (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996); Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:2128-2133 (2008)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism cat1 729048 P38946.1 Clostridium kluyveri cat2 172046066 P38942.2 Clostridium kluyveri cat3 146349050 EDK35586.1 Clostridium kluyveri

Finally, though not as desirable from an energetic standpoint, the conversion of adipyl-CoA to adipate can also be carried out by an acyl-CoA hydrolase or equivalently a thioesterase. The top E. coli gene candidate is tesB (Naggert et al., J. Biol. Chem. 266:11044-11050 (1991)), which shows high similarity to the human acot8, which is a dicarboxylic acid acetyltransferase with activity on adipyl-CoA (Westin et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:38125-38132 (2005)). This activity has also been characterized in the rat liver (Deana, Biochem. Int. 26:767-773 (1992)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism tesB 16128437 NP_414986 Escherichia coli acot8 3191970 CAA15502 Homo sapiens acot8 51036669 NP_570112 Rattus norvegicus

Other native candidate genes include tesA (Bonner and Bloch, J. Biol. Chem. 247:3123-3133 (1972)), ybgC (Kuznetsova et al., FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 29:263-279 (2005); Zhuang et al., FEES Lett. 516:161-163 (2002)), paaI (Song et al., J. Biol. Chem. 281:11028-11038 (2006)), and ybdB (Leduc et al., J. Bacteriol. 189:7112-7126 (2007)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism tesA 16128478 NP_415027 Escherichia coli ybgC 16128711 NP_415264 Escherichia coli paaI 16129357 NP_415914 Escherichia coli ybdB 16128580 NP_415129 Escherichia coli

The above description provides an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway by way of a reverse adipate degradation pathway.

EXAMPLE II Preparation of an Adipate Producing Microbial Organism Having a Reverse Degradation Pathway

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing adipate using the reverse degradation pathway.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer a reverse adipate degradation pathway as shown in FIG. 2. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing adipate. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce adipate, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the reverse degradation pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), paaH (NP_415913.1), and maoC (NP_415905.1) genes encoding the succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bcd (NP_349317.1), etfAB (349315.1 and 349316.1), and sucCD (NP_415256.1 and AAC73823.1) genes encoding 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase and adipyl-CoA synthetase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for adipate synthesis via the reverse degradation pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of reverse degradation pathway genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce adipate is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional adipate synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of adipate. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of adipate. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates or the adipate product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the adipate producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of adipate, the above reverse degradation pathway-containing organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of an adipate producing microbial organism using a reverse degradation pathway.

EXAMPLE III Adipate Synthesis Through 3-Oxoadipate

This example describes an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway through 3-oxoadipate.

An additional pathway from that described in Examples I and II that uses acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA as precursors for adipate formation and passes through the metabolic intermediate, 3-oxoadipate, is shown in FIG. 3. The initial two transformations in this pathway are the two terminal steps of the degradation pathway for aromatic and choloroaromatic compounds operating in the reverse direction (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002); Nogales et al., Microbiol. 153:357-365 (2007); Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003)). Specifically, the first step forms 3-oxoadipyl CoA by the condensation of succinyl- and acetyl-CoA. The second step forms 3-oxoadipate and is reported to be reversible in Pseudomonas sp. Strain B13 (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002)).

The subsequent steps involve reduction of 3-oxoadipate to 3-hydroxyadipate (conversion of a keto group to hydroxyl group), dehydration of 3-hydroxyadipate to yield hexa-2-enedioate, and reduction of hexa-2-enedioate to form adipate. These steps of the pathway are analogous to the conversion of oxaloacetate into succinate via the reductive TCA cycle (see FIG. 4). This supports the steps in the pathway being thermodynamically favorable subject to the presence of appropriate metabolite concentrations. The final reduction step can be carried out either biochemically or by employing a chemical catalyst to convert hexa-2-enedioate into adipate. Chemical hydrogenation can be performed using Pt catalyst on activated carbon as has been described in (Niu et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 18:201-211 (2002)).

The maximum theoretical yield of adipate using this pathway is 0.92 mole per mole glucose consumed, and oxygen is not required for attaining these yields (see Table 2). The associated energetics are identical to those of the reverse adipate pathway. Theoretically, ATP formation of up to 1.55 moles is observed per mole of glucose utilized through this pathway. The ATP yield improves to approximately 2.47 moles if phosphoenolpyruvate kinase (PPCK) is assumed to operate in the direction of ATP generation. Interestingly, the product yield can be increased further to 1 mole adipate per mole of glucose consumed if chemical hydrogenation is used for the last step and a 100% efficiency of catalysis is assumed. In this scenario, up to 1.95 moles of ATP are formed theoretically without assuming the reverse functionality of PPCK.

TABLE 2 The maximum theoretical yields of adipate and the associated ATP yields per mole of glucose using the 3-oxoadipate pathway. Final step chemical Final step enzymatic hydrogenation Aerobic Anaerobic Aerobic Anaerobic Adipate Yield 0.92 0.92 1.00 1.00 Max ATP yield @ max 1.55 1.55 1.95 1.95 adipate yield

Successfully engineering this pathway involves identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity. This entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation. To engineer a production host for the production of adipate, one or more exogenous DNA sequence(s) can be expressed in a host microorganism. In addition, the host microorganism can have endogenous gene(s) functionally deleted. These modifications allow the production of adipate using renewable feedstock.

Described below are a number of biochemically characterized candidate genes capable of encoding enzymes that catalyze each step of the 3-oxoadipate pathway for adipate synthesis. Although this method is described for E. coli, one skilled in the art can apply these teachings to any other suitable host organism. Specifically, listed below are genes that are native to E. coli as well as genes in other organisms that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations when properly cloned and expressed.

Referring to FIG. 3, step 1 involves succinyl CoA:acetyl CoA acyl transferase (β-ketothiolase). Gene candidates for this enzyme are listed above (FIG. 2, step 1).

Referring to FIG. 3, step 2 involves 3-oxoadipyl-CoA transferase. In this step, 3-oxoadipate is formed by the transfer of the CoA group from 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to succinate. This activity is reported in a two-unit enzyme encoded by pcal and pcaJ in Pseudomonas (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002)). This enzyme catalyzes a reversible transformation. The protein sequences of exemplary gene products for subunit A of this complex can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pcaI 24985644 AAN69545.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaI 50084858 YP_046368.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 pcaI 21224997 NP_630776.1 Streptomyces coelicolor

The protein sequences of exemplary gene products for subunit B of this complex can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pcaJ 26990657 NP_746082.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaJ 21224996 NP_630775.1 Streptomyces coelicolor pcaJ 141776 AAC37147.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1

Referring to FIG. 3, step 3 involves 3-oxoadipate reductase. E. coli has several candidate alcohol dehydrogenases; two that have analogous functions are malate dehydrogenase (mdh) and lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA). While it has not been shown that these two enzymes have broad substrate specificities in E. coli, lactate dehydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha has been shown to demonstrate high activities on substrates of various chain lengths such as lactate, 2-oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentanoate and 2-oxoglutarate (Steinbuchel and Schlegel, Eur. J. Biochem. 130:329-334 (1983)). An additional non-native enzyme candidate for this step is the mitochondrial 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (bdh) from the human heart which has been cloned and characterized (Marks et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:15459-15463 (1992)). This enzyme is particularly interesting in that it is a dehydrogenase that operates on a 3-hydroxyacid. Given that dehydrogenases are typically reversible, it is expected that this gene product, or a homlog thereof, will be capable of reducing a 3-oxoacid, for example, 3-oxoadipate, to the corresponding 3-hydroxyacid, for example, 3-hydroxyadipate. The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism mdh 1789632 AAC76268.1 Escherichia coli ldhA 16129341 NP_415898.1 Escherichia coli ldh 113866693 YP_725182.1 Ralstonia eutropha bdh 177198 AAA58352.1 Homo sapiens

Referring to FIG. 3, step 4 involves 3-hydroxyadipate dehydratase. In this reaction, 3-hydroxyadipate is dehydrated to hexa-2-enedioate. Although no direct evidence for this enzymatic transformation has been identified, most dehydratases catalyze the α,β-elimination of water. This involves activation of the α-hydrogen by an electron-withdrawing carbonyl, carboxylate, or CoA-thiol ester group and removal of the hydroxyl group from the β-position (Martins et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:15645-15649 (2004); Buckel and Golding, FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 22:523-541 (1998)). The protein sequences for exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism acnA 166215073 P25516.3 Escherichia coli fumB 33112655 P14407.2 Escherichia coli ilvD 146451 AAA24013.1 Escherichia coli

Other good candidates for carrying out this function are the serine dehydratases. These enzymes catalyze a very similar transformation in the removal of ammonia from serine as required in this dehydration step. The protein sequence for exemplary gene product can be found using the following GI number and/or GenBank identifier:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism dsdA 2507445 P00926 Escherichia coli

Non-native gene candidates for this transformation have been identified as well. For example, the multi-subunit L-serine dehydratase from Peptostreptococcus asaccharolyticus was shown to complement an E. coli strain deficient in L-serine dehydratase activity (Hofmeister et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:4937-4941 (1997)). Further, a putative 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase, encoded by the gene hmd in Eubacterium barkeri shows similarity to both α- and β-subunits of [4Fe-4S]-containing bacterial serine dehydratases (Alhapel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12341-12346 (2006)). The protein sequence for exemplary gene product can be found using the following GI number and/or GenBank identifier:

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism Hmd 86278275 ABC88407.1 Eubacterium barkeri

Referring to FIG. 3, step 5 involves 2-enoate reductase. The final step in the 3-oxoadipate pathway is reduction of the double bond in hexa-3-enedioate to form adipate. Biochemically, this transformation can be catalyzed by 2-enoate reductase (EC 1.3.1.31) known to catalyze the NADH-dependent reduction of a wide variety of a, β-unsaturated carboxylic acids and aldehydes (Rohdich et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). This enzyme is encoded by enr in several species of Clostridia (Giesel and Simon, Arch. Microbiol. 135:51-57 (1983)) including C. tyrobutyricum and C. thermoaceticum (now called Moorella thermoaceticum) (Rohdich, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). In the recently published genome sequence of C. kluyveri, 9 coding sequences for enoate reductases have been reported, out of which one has been characterized (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:2128-2133 (2008)). The enr genes from both C. tyrobutyricum and C. thermoaceticum have been cloned and sequenced and show 59% identity to each other. The former gene is also found to have approximately 75% similarity to the characterized gene in C. kluyveri (Giesel and Simon, Arch. Microbiol. 135:51-57 (1983)). It has been reported based on these sequence results that enr is very similar to the dienoyl CoA reductase in E. coli (fadH) (Rohdich et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). Several gene candidates thus exist for catalyzing this last step in the 3-oxoadipate pathway and have been listed below. The C. thermoaceticum enr gene has also been expressed in an enzymatically active form in E. coli (Rohdich et al., supra, 2001). The protein sequences for exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism fadH 16130976 NP_417552.1 Escherichia coli enr 169405742 ACA54153.1 Clostridium botulinum A3 str enr 2765041 CAA71086.1 Clostridium tyrobutyricum enr 3402834 CAA76083.1 Clostridium kluyveri

The above description provides an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway by way of an 3-oxoadipate pathway.

EXAMPLE IV Preparation of an Adipate Producing Microbial Organism Having a 3-Oxoadipate Pathway

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing adipate using the 3-oxoadipate pathway.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the 3-oxoadipate pathway as shown in FIG. 3. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing adipate. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce adipate, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the 3-oxoadipate pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), pcaIJ (AAN69545.1 and NP_746082.1), and bdh (AAA58352.1) genes encoding the succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-oxoadipyl-CoA transferase, and 3-oxoadipate reductase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the acnA (P25516.3) and enr (ACA54153.1) genes encoding 3-hydroxyadipate dehydratase and 2-enoate reductase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for adipate synthesis via the 3-oxoadipate pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the 3-oxoadipate pathway genes for adipate synthesis is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce adipate is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional adipate synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of adipate. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of adipate. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates or the adipate product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the adipate producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of adipate, the 3-oxoadipate pathway-containing organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at around a pH of 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of an adipate-producing microbial organism containing a 3-oxidoadipate pathway.

EXAMPLE V Adipate Synthesis via cis,cis-Muconic Acid

This example describes an adipate synthesis pathway previously described (see Niu et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 18(2): p. 201-11. 2002; Frost et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,487,987, issued Jan. 30, 1996).

Adipate synthesis via a combined biological and chemical conversion process has been previously described. (Niu et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 18:201-211 (2002)) and is shown in FIG. 5. This method is further described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,487,987. Adipate synthesis through this route entails introduction of three heterologous genes into E. coli that can convert dehydroshikimate into cis,cis-muconic acid (Niu et al., supra, 2002). A final chemical hydrogenation step leads to the formation of adipic acid. In this step, the pretreated fermentation broth that contained 150 mM cis,cis-muconate was mixed with 10% platinum (Pt) on activated carbon. The hydrogenation reaction was carried out at 3400 KPa of hydrogen pressure for two and a half hour at 250° C. with stirring. The calculated adipate yields are shown in Table 3 assuming either an enzymatic or chemical catalysis step is utilized to convert cis,cis-muconate into adipate. Under aerobic conditions, an 85% molar yield of adipate can be obtained if a chemical reaction is employed for hydrogenation and a 75% molar yield is obtained if an NADH-based hydrogenase is used.

TABLE 3 The maximum theoretical yields of adipate per mole of glucose using the using the cis,cis-muconic acid pathway. Final step chemical Final step enzymatic hydrogenation Aerobic Anaerobic Aerobic Anaerobic Adipate Yield 0.75 0.00 0.85 0.00

Although this is an exemplary method, there are disadvantages of this method compared to others, such as those described in Examples I-IV. For example, the first limitation of this method is the lower theoretical yields compared to the reverse adipate degradation and 3-oxoadipate pathways. The second limitation is that the ATP yields of this pathway are negligible. A third limitation of this pathway is that it involves a dioxygenase, necessitating a supply of oxygen to the bioreactor and precluding the option of anaerobic fermentation.

The above description provides an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway by way of a cis,cis-muconic acid pathway

EXAMPLE VI Adipate Synthesis via Alpha-Ketoadipate

This example describes an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway via an alpha-ketoadipate pathway.

Alpha-keto adipate is a known intermediate in lysine biosynthesis in S. cerevisiae, and this information was used to identify an additional pathway for adipic acid biosynthesis (see FIG. 6). Conversion of alpha-ketoglutarate to alpha-ketoadipate is catalyzed by homocitrate synthase, homoaconitase, and homoisocitrate dehydrogenase as indicated by dashed arrows in FIG. 6. Conversion of alpha-ketoadipate into alpha-hydroxyadipate can be catalyzed by 2-ketoadipate reductase, an enzyme reported to be found in rat and in human placenta (Suda et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 176:610-620 (1976); Suda et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 77:586-591 (1977). Subsequent steps involve a dehydratase for the conversion of alpha-hydroxyadipate into hexa-2-enedioate followed by its reduction to adipic acid. This last step can be catalyzed either by an enzyme or can take place through a chemical reaction as described in Example II. Genes encoding the enzymes for the alpha-ketoadipate pathway are identified as described in Examples I-IV.

The adipate yields associated with this pathway are shown in Table 4. Because of the loss of two CO₂ molecules during the conversion of acetyl-CoA to adipate, only 67% of the glucose can be converted into adipate. This is reflected in the molar yields for this pathway under aerobic conditions. The yields are further reduced in the absence of oxygen uptake. Also since the maximum ATP yields under anaerobic conditions are negligible, the engineered organism will have to utilize additional substrate to form energy for cell growth and maintenance under such conditions.

TABLE 4 The maximum theoretical yields of adipate and the associated ATP yields per mole of glucose using the using the alpha-ketoadipate pathway. Final step chemical Final step enzymatic hydrogenation Aerobic Anaerobic Aerobic Anaerobic Adipate Yield 0.67 0.45 0.67 0.40 Max ATP yield @ max 6.17 0.00 7.50 0.00 adipate yield

The above description provides an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway by way of an alpha-ketoadipate pathway.

EXAMPLE VII Adipate Synthesis via Lysine Degradation

This example describes an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway via a lysine degradation pathway.

Two additional pathways for adipate synthesis rely on lysine degradation to form adipate. One pathway starts from alpha-ketoglutarate to form lysine (pathway non-native to E. coli and found in S. cerevisiae), and the other uses aspartate as a starting point for lysine biosynthesis (pathway native to E. coli). FIG. 7 shows adipate formation from lysine. The maximum theoretical yields for adipate, both in the presence and absence of oxygen, using the E. coli stoichiometric model are shown in Tables 5 and 6, with alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate as the respective starting points for lysine. The maximum ATP yields accompanying these theoretical yields were also calculated and are shown in the same tables. These yields are lower in comparison to the other pathways described in Examples I-IV. Genes encoding the enzymes for the alpha-ketoadipate pathway are identified as described in Examples I-IV.

TABLE 5 The maximum theoretical yield of adipate and the accompanying ATP yield per mole of glucose assuming the lysine biosynthesis pathway with alpha-ketoglutarate as a starting point. Aerobic Anaerobic Adipate Yield 0.40 0.20 Max ATP yield @ max adipate yield 5.60 0.00

TABLE 6 The maximum theoretical yield of adipate and the accompanying ATP yield per mole of glucose assuming the lysine biosynthesis pathway with aspartate as a starting point. Aerobic Anaerobic Adipate Yield 0.50 0.34 Max ATP yield @ max adipate yield 0.50 0.04

The above description provides an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway by way of a lysine degradation pathway.

EXAMPLE VIII Production of Caprolactam and 6-Aminocaproic Acid Via Adipyl-CoA

This example describes an exemplary caprolactam and/or 6-aminocaproic acid synthesis pathway via an adipyl-CoA pathway.

An exemplary pathway for forming caprolactam and/or 6-aminocaproic acid using adipyl-CoA as the precursor is shown in FIG. 8. The pathway involves a CoA-dependant aldehyde dehydrogenase that can reduce adipyl-CoA to adipate semialdehyde and a transaminase or 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase that can transform this molecule into 6-aminocaproic acid. The terminal step that converts 6-aminocaproate into caprolactam can be accomplished either via an amidohydrolase or via chemical conversion (Guit and Buijs, U.S. Pat. No. 6,353,100, issued Mar. 7, 2002; Wolters et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,700,934, issued Dec. 23, 1997; Agterberg et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,660,857, issued Dec. 9, 2003). The maximum theoretical yield of caprolactam was calculated to be 0.8 mole per mole glucose consumed (see Table 7) assuming that the reverse adipate degradation pathway was complemented with the reaction scheme shown in FIG. 8. The pathway is favorable energetically as up to 0.78 moles of ATP are formed per mole of glucose consumed at the maximum theoretical yield of caprolactam. The ATP yield can be further improved to 1.63 moles of ATP produced per mole of glucose if phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PPCK) is assumed to function in the ATP-generating direction towards oxaloacetate formation.

The final amidohydrolase step is energetically and redox neutral, and thus the product and ATP molar yields associated with 6-aminocaproic acid production are equivalent to those associated with caprolactam production. Thus one can alternatively envision a microorganism and associated fermentation process that forms 6-aminocaproic acid instead of caprolactam followed by an additional unit operation to dehydrate/cyclize 6-aminocaproic acid to caprolactam.

TABLE 7 The maximum theoretical yield of caprolactam and the accompanying ATP yield per mole of glucose assuming that the reverse fatty acid degradation pathway is complemented with the reaction scheme from FIG. 8. Aerobic Anaerobic Caprolactam Yield 0.80 0.80 Max ATP yield @ max Caprolactam 0.78 0.78 yield Max ATP yield @ max Caprolactam 1.63 1.63 yield PPCK assumed

Successfully engineering this pathway involves identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity. This entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation. To engineer a production host for the production of 6-aminocaproic acid or caprolactam, one or more exogenous DNA sequence(s) can be expressed in a host microorganism. In addition, the microorganism can have endogenous gene(s) functionally deleted. These modifications will allow the production of 6-aminocaproate or caprolactam using renewable feedstock.

Below is described a number of biochemically characterized candidate genes capable of encoding enzymes that catalyze each step of the caprolactam formation pathway described in FIG. 8. Although described for E. coli, one skilled in the art can apply these teachings to any other suitable host organism. Specifically, the genes listed are native to E. coli or are genes in other organisms that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations when properly cloned and expressed.

Referring to FIG. 8, step 1 involves CoA-dependant aldehyde dehydrogenase. Exemplary genes that encode enzymes for catalyzing the reduction of an acyl-coA to its corresponding aldehyde include the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Reiser and Somerville, J. Bacteriol. 179:2969-2975 (1997)), the Acinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002)) and the sucD gene from Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)), which can convert succinyl-CoA to succinate semialdehyde.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism acr1 50086359 YP_047869.1 Acinetobacter calcoaceticus 18857901 BAB85476.1 Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1 sucD 172046062 P38947.1 Clostridium kluyveri

Referring to FIG. 8, step 2 involves transaminase. The second step in the pathway is conversion of the 6-aldehyde to an amine. This transformation can likely be accomplished by gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase (GABA transaminase), a native enzyme encoded by gabT that transfers an amino group from glutamate to the terminal aldehyde of succinyl semialdehyde (Bartsch et al., J. Bacteriol. 172:7035-7042 (1990)). The gene product of puuE catalyzes another 4-aminobutyrate transaminase in E. coli (Kurihara et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4602-4608 (2005)). GABA transaminases in Mus musculus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Sus scrofa have been shown to react with 6-aminocaproic acid (Cooper, Methods Enzymol. 113:80-82 (1985); Scott and Jakoby, J. Biol. Chem. 234:932-936 (1959)). The protein sequences for exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism gabT 16130576 NP_417148.1 Escherichia coli puuE 16129263 NP_415818.1 Escherichia coli abat 37202121 NP_766549.2 Mus musculus gabT 70733692 YP_257332.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens abat 47523600 NP_999428.1 Sus scrofa

Referring to FIG. 8, step 2 can alternatively involve 6-aminocaproate dehydrogenase which comprises the reductive amination of adipate semialdehyde to form 6-aminocaproate. This transformation can be accomplished by lysine-6-dehydrogenase, which naturally converts L-lysine to 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde. Exemplary enzymes can be found in Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Heydari et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70(2):937-942 (2004)), Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Hashimoto et al., J. Biochem. (Tokyo), 106(1):76-80 (1989); Misono et al., J. Biochem. (Tokyo), 105(6):1002-1008 (1989)), and Achromobacter denitrificans (Ruldeekulthamrong et al., BMB Reports 790-795 (2008)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism lysDH 13429872 BAB39707 Geobacillus stearothermophilus lysDH 15888285 NP_353966 Agrobacterium tumefaciens lysDH 74026644 AAZ94428 Achromobacter denitrificans

Referring to FIG. 8, step 3 involves amidohydrolase. The final step of caprolactam synthesis is cyclization of 6-aminocaproic acid. This transformation has not been characterized enzymatically but it is very similar to the cyclization of lysine by D-lysine lactamase (EC 3.5.2.11) from Cryptococcus laurentii (Fukumura et al., FEBS Lett. 89:298-300 (1978)). However, the protein and nucleotide sequences of this enzyme are not currently known and, so far, lysine lactamase activity has not been demonstrated in other organisms.

Plasmids contained in several strains of Pseudomonas sp. isolated from soil have been shown to confer ability to grow on caprolactam as a sole carbon source (Boronin et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 22:167-170 (1984)); however, associated gene or protein sequences have not been associated with this function to date.

The most closely related candidate enzyme with available sequence information is 6-aminohexanoate-cyclic dimer hydrolase, which has been characterized in Pseudomonas sp. and Flavobacterium sp. The nylB gene product from Pseudomonas sp NK87 was cloned and expressed in E. coli (Kanagawa et al., J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:787-795 (1993)). The substrate specificity of the enzyme was tested in Flavobacterium sp K172 and was shown to react with higher-order oligomers of 6-aminohexanoate but not caprolactam (Kinoshita et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 116:547-551 (1981)). The reversibility and ability of 6-aminohexanoate dimer hydrolases in other organisms to react with the desired substrate in the direction of interest can be further tested. The protein sequences for exemplary gene products can be found using the following GI numbers and/or GenBank identifiers:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism nylB 148711 AAA24929.1 Pseudomonas sp NK87 nylB 129000 P13397 Flavobacterium sp K172 nylB 119961013 YP_949627.1 Arthrobacter aurescens TC1

The above description provides an exemplary pathway to produce caprolactam and/or 6-aminocaproic acid by way of an adipyl-CoA pathway.

EXAMPLE IX Preparation of a 6-Aminocaproate or Caprolactam Producing Microbial Organism Having a 3-Oxoadipate Pathway

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing adipate using the reverse degradation pathway and converting the intracellular adipate to 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the necessary genes for adipate, 6-aminocaproate, and/or caprolactam synthesis (see FIG. 2 and FIG. 8). E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing adipate, 6-aminocaproate, and/or caprolactam. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the reverse adipate degradation pathway and 6-aminocaproate or caprolactam synthesis pathways are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), paaH (NP_415913.1), and maoC (NP_415905.1) genes encoding the succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA acyl transferase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bcd (NP_349317.1), etfAB (349315.1 and 349316.1), and sucCD (NP_415256.1 and AAC73823.1) genes encoding 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase and adipyl-CoA synthetase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Lastly, the acr1 (YP_047869.1), gabT (NP_417148.1), and nylB (AAA24929.1) genes encoding CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase, transaminase, and amidohydrolase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the 6-aminocaproate and caprolactam synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional pathway for the synthesis of 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates of the products. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of 6-aminocaproate and/or caprolactam, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at around a pH of 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

EXAMPLE X Adipate Synthesis via 2-Hydroxyadipyl-CoA

This example describes two exemplary adipate synthesis pathways proceeding from alpha-ketoadipate and passing through a 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA intermediate.

As described in example VI, alpha-ketoadipate is a known intermediate in lysine biosynthesis that can be formed from alpha-ketoglutarate via homocitrate synthase, homoaconitase, and homoisocitrate dehydrogenase. Alpha-ketoadipate can be converted to 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA by the two routes depicted in FIG. 9. 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA can be subsequently dehydrated and reduced to adipyl-CoA which can then be converted to adipate as shown in FIG. 9. The maximum yield of adipate from glucose via these pathways is 0.67 mol/mol.

Conversion of alpha-ketoadipate into 2-hydroxyadipate can be catalyzed by 2-ketoadipate reductase, an enzyme reported to be found in rat and in human placenta (Suda et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 176:610-620 (1976); Suda et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 77:586-591 (1977). Alternatively, enzymes capable of reducing alpha-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate may also show activity on alpha-ketoadipate, which is only one carbon atom longer. One such enzyme possessing alpha-ketoglutarate reductase activity is serA of Escherichia coli (Zhao and Winkler, J. Bacteriol. 178(1):232-9 (1996)). Additional exemplary enzymes can be found in Arabidopsis thaliana (Ho, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274(1):397-402 (1999)) and Haemophilus influenzae.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism serA 16130814 NP_417388.1 Escherichia coli PGDH 18394525 NP_564034 Arabidopsis thaliana serA 1173427 P43885 Haemophilus influenzae

Referring to FIG. 9, 2-hydroxyadipate can likely be converted to 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA by the synthetases, transferases, phosphotransadipylases and kinases described in example I. Alternatively, enzymes with 2-hydroxyglutarate CoA-transferase or glutaconate CoA-transferase activity are likely suitable to transfer a CoA moiety to 2-hydroxyadipate. One example of such an enzyme is encoded by the gctA and gctB genes of Acidaminococcus fermentans (Buckel, et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 118(2):315-321 (1981); Mack, et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226(1):41-51 (1994)). Similarly, synthetase, transferase, or phosphotransadipylase and kinase activities would be required to convert alpha-ketoadipate into alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA, as depicted in FIG. 9. Conversion of alpha-ketoadipyl-CoA to 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA can be carried out by an alpha-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase enzyme. A similar activity was reported in propionate-adapted E. coli cells whose extracts catalyzed the oxidation of lactyl-CoA to form pyruvyl-CoA (Megraw et al., J. Bacteriol. 90(4): 984-988 (1965)). Additional hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases were described in example I.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism gctA 3122155 Q59111 Acidaminococcus fermentans gctB 3122156 Q59112 Acidaminococcus fermentans

The dehydration of 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to form 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA can be carried out by a 2-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase. A 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA dehydratase system has been characterized in Acidaminococcus fermentans and requires both the hgdA and hgdB subunits and the activator protein, hgdC, for optimal activity (Dutscho et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 181(3):741-746 (1989); Locher et al. J. Mol. Biol. 307(1):297-308; Muller and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 230(2):698-704 (2001); Schweiger et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 169(2):441-448 (1987)). This enzyme system is similar in mechanism to the lactoyl-CoA dehydratase from Clostridium propionicum (Hofmeister and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 206(2):547-552 (1992); Kuchta and Abeles, J. Biol. Chem. 260(24):13181-13189 (1985)). Homologs to hgdA, hgdB, and hgdC exist in several organisms.

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism hgdA 123112 P11569 Acidaminococcus fermentans hgdB 123113 P11570 Acidaminococcus fermentans hgdC 2506909 P11568 Acidaminococcus fermentans hgdA 225177593 ZP_03731126.1 Clostridium sp. M62/1 hgdB 225177592 ZP_03731125.1 Clostridium sp. M62/1 hgdC 225177594 ZP_03731127.1 Clostridium sp. M62/1 hgdA 19703552 NP_603114.1 Fusobacterium nucleatum hgdB 19703553 NP_603115.1 Fusobacterium nucleatum hgdC 19703551 NP_603113.1 Fusobacterium nucleatum

Conversion of 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA to adipate is carried out by the enzymes described in Example I.

The above description provides an exemplary adipate synthesis pathway by way of a 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA pathway.

EXAMPLE XI Preparation of an Adipate Producing Microbial Organism Having a 2-Hydroxyadipyl-CoA Pathway

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing adipate using a 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA pathway.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the necessary genes for adipate synthesis (see FIG. 9). E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing adipate. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce adipate, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in a 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to adipate pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the serA (NP_417388.1), gctA (Q59111), and gctB (Q59112) genes encoding the 2-hydroxyadipate dehydrogenase and 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the hgdA (P11569), hgdB (P11570), and hgdC (P11568) genes encoding 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase activity, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Further, the bcd (NP_349317.1), etfAB (349315.1 and 349316.1), and sucCD (NP_415256.1 and AAC73823.1) genes encoding 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase and adipyl-CoA synthetase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for adipate synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA pathway genes for adipate synthesis is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce adipate is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional adipate synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of adipate. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of adipate. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the alpha-ketoadipate intermediate or the adipate product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the adipate producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of adipate, the 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA pathway-containing organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at around a pH of 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of an adipate-producing microbial organism containing a 2-hydroxyadipyl-CoA pathway.

EXAMPLE XII Pathways for Production of Hexamethylenediamine, Caprolactam and 6-Aminocaproic Acid

This example describes exemplary pathways for production of hexamethylenediamine, caprolactam and 6-aminocaproic acid.

Described below are various pathways leading to the production of caprolactam, hexamethylenediamine (HMDA), or 6-aminocaproate from common central metabolites. The first described pathway entails the activation of 6-aminocaproate to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA by a transferase or synthase enzyme (FIG. 10, Step Q or R) followed by the spontaneous cyclization of 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to form caprolactam (FIG. 10, Step T). The second described pathway entails the activation of 6-aminocaproate to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA (FIG. 10, Step Q or R), followed by a reduction (FIG. 10, Step U) and amination (FIG. 10, Step V or W) to form HMDA. 6-Aminocaproic acid can alternatively be activated to 6-aminocaproyl-phosphate instead of 6-aminocaproyl-CoA. 6-Aminocaproyl-phosphate can spontaneously cyclize to form caprolactam. Alternatively, 6-aminocaproyl-phosphate can be reduced to 6-aminocaproate semialdehye, which can be then converted to HMDA as depicted in FIGS. 10 and 11. In either this case, the amination reaction must occur relatively quickly to minimize the spontaneous formation of the cyclic imine of 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde. Linking or scaffolding the participating enzymes represents a potentially powerful option for ensuring that the 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde intermediate is efficiently channeled from the reductase enzyme to the amination enzyme.

Another option for minimizing or even eliminating the formation of the cyclic imine or caprolactam during the conversion of 6-aminocaproic acid to HMDA entails adding a functional group (for example, acetyl, succinyl) to the amine group of 6-aminocaproic acid to protect it from cyclization. This is analogous to ornithine formation from L-glutamate in Escherichia coli. Specifically, glutamate is first converted to N-acetyl-L-glutamate by N-acetylglutamate synthase. N-Acetyl-L-glutamate is then activated to N-acetylglutamyl-phosphate, which is reduced and transaminated to form N-acetyl-L-ornithine. The acetyl group is then removed from N-acetyl-L-ornithine by N-acetyl-L-ornithine deacetylase forming L-ornithine. Such a route is necessary because formation of glutamate-5-phosphate from glutamate followed by reduction to glutamate-5-semialdehyde leads to the formation of (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate, a cyclic imine formed spontaneously from glutamate-5-semialdehyde. In the case of forming HMDA from 6-aminocaproic acid, the steps can involve acetylating 6-aminocaproic acid to acetyl-6-aminocaproic acid, activating the carboxylic acid group with a CoA or phosphate group, reducing, aminating, and deacetylating.

Note that 6-aminocaproate can be formed from various starting molecules. For example, the carbon backbone of 6-aminocaproate can be derived from succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA as depicted in FIG. 10 and also described in FIGS. 2, 3 and 8. Alternatively, 6-aminocaproate can be derived from alpha-ketoadipate, where alpha-ketoadipate is converted to adipyl-CoA (see FIG. 9), and adipyl-CoA is converted to 6-aminocaproate as shown in FIG. 10.

FIG. 11 provides two additional metabolic pathways to 6-aminocaproate or 6-aminocapropyl-CoA starting from 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA. The first route entails the condensation of 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to form 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA (Step A) followed by a reduction (Step B), dehydration (Step C), and reduction (Step D) to form 6-aminocaproyl-CoA. 6-Aminocaproyl-CoA can be converted to 6-aminocaproate by a transferase (Step K), synthase (Step L), or hydrolase (Step M) enzyme. Alternatively, 6-aminocaproyl-CoA can be converted to caprolactam by spontaneous cyclization (Step Q) or to HMDA following its reduction (Step N) and amination (Step O or P). The second pathway described in FIG. 11 entails the condensation of 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to form 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA (Step A) which is then converted to 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate by a transferase (Step E), synthase (Step F), or hydrolase (Step G). 3-Oxo-6-aminohexanoate is then reduced (Step H), dehydrated (Step I), and reduced (Step J) to form 6-aminocaproate.

The starting molecule, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA, can be formed from various common central metabolites. For example, glutamate can be decarboxylated to 4-aminobutyrate, which is then activated by a CoA-transferase or synthase to 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. Alternatively, succinate semialdehyde, formed from either the reduction of succinyl-CoA or the decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate, can be transaminated to 4-aminobutyrate prior to activation by a CoA-transferase or synthase to form 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. It is noted that 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and several of the intermediates of the 4-aminobutyryl-CoA to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA pathway may spontaneously cyclize to their corresponding lactams. Thus, adding a protective functional group to the terminal amine group of 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and/or several of the amino-CoA intermediates can be used to minimize the formation of unwanted cyclic byproducts. In this case, the same general set of transformations depicted in FIG. 11 would apply, although two additional steps, for example, an acetylase and deacetylase, can be added to the pathway.

All transformations depicted in FIGS. 10-11 fall into the 12 general categories of transformations shown in Table 8. Below is described a number of biochemically characterized candidate genes in each category. Specifically listed are genes that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations in FIGS. 10-11 when cloned and expressed.

TABLE 8 Enzyme types for conversion of succinyl-CoA, acetyl-CoA, and/or 4-aminobutyryl-CoA to 6-aminocaproate, caprolactam, and/or hexamethylenediamine. The first three digits of each label correspond to the first three Enzyme Commission number digits which denote the general type of transformation independent of substrate specificity. Label Function 1.1.1.a Oxidoreductase (ketone to hydroxyl or aldehyde to alcohol) 1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde) 1.3.1.a Oxidoreductase operating on CH—CH donors 1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase operating on amino acids 2.3.1.b Acyltransferase 2.6.1.a Aminotransferase 2.8.3.a Coenzyme-A transferase 3.1.2.a Thiolester hydrolase (CoA specific) 4.2.1.a Hydro-lyase 6.2.1.a Acid-thiol ligase 6.3.1.a/6.3.2.a Amide synthases/peptide synthases No enzyme Spontaneous cyclization required

1.1.1.a Oxidoreductases. Four transformations depicted in FIGS. 10 and 11 require oxidoreductases that convert a ketone functionality to a hydroxyl group. Step B in both FIGS. 10 and 11 involves converting a 3-oxoacyl-CoA to a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA. Step H in both FIGS. 1 and 2 involves converting a 3-oxoacid to a 3-hydroxyacid.

Exemplary enzymes that can convert 3-oxoacyl-CoA molecules such as 3-oxoadipyl-CoA and 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA into 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA molecules such as 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA and 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA, respectively, include enzymes whose natural physiological roles are in fatty acid beta-oxidation or phenylacetate catabolism. For example, subunits of two fatty acid oxidation complexes in E. coli, encoded by fadB and fadJ, function as 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases (Binstock et al., Methods Enzymol. 71:403-411 (1981)). Furthermore, the gene products encoded by phaC in Pseudomonas putida U (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)) and paaC in Pseudomonas fluorescens ST (Di Gennaro et al., Arch. Microbiol. 188:117-125 (2007)) catalyze the reverse reaction of step B in FIG. 10, that is, the oxidation of 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to form 3-oxoadipyl-CoA, during the catabolism of phenylacetate or styrene. Note that the reactions catalyzed by such enzymes are reversible. In addition, given the proximity in E. coli of paaH to other genes in the phenylacetate degradation operon (Nogales et al., Microbiology 153:357-365 (2007)) and the fact that paaH mutants cannot grow on phenylacetate (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003)), it is expected that the E. coli paaH gene encodes a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism fadB 119811 P21177.2 Escherichia coli fadJ 3334437 P77399.1 Escherichia coli paaH 16129356 NP_415913.1 Escherichia coli phaC 26990000 NP_745425.1 Pseudomonas putida paaC 106636095 ABF82235.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens

Additional exemplary oxidoreductases capable of converting 3-oxoacyl-CoA molecules to their corresponding 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA molecules include 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenases. The enzyme from Clostridium acetobutylicum, encoded by hbd, has been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Youngleson et al., J. Bacteriol. 171:6800-6807 (1989)). Additional gene candidates include Hbd1 (C-terminal domain) and Hbd2 (N-terminal domain) in Clostridium kluyveri (Hillmer et al., FEBS Lett. 21:351-354 (1972)) and HSD17B10 in Bos taurus (Wakil et al., J. Biol. Chem. 207:631-638 (1954)). Yet other gene candidates demonstrated to reduce acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA are phbB from Zoogloea ramigera (Ploux et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 174:177-182 (1988)) and phaB from Rhodobacter sphaeroides (Alber et al., Mol. Microbiol 61:297-309 (2006)). The former gene candidate is NADPH-dependent, its nucleotide sequence has been determined (Peoples et al., Mol. Microbiol. 3:349-357 (1989)) and the gene has been expressed in E. coli. Substrate specificity studies on the gene led to the conclusion that it could accept 3-oxopropionyl-CoA as a substrate besides acetoacetyl-CoA (Ploux et al., supra).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hbd 18266893 P52041.2 Clostridium acetobutylicum Hbd2 146348271 EDK34807.1 Clostridium kluyveri Hbd1 146345976 EDK32512.1 Clostridium kluyveri HSD17B10 3183024 O02691.3 Bos taurus phbB 130017 P23238.1 Zoogloea ramigera phaB 146278501 YP_001168660.1 Rhodobacter sphaeroides

A number of similar enzymes have been found in other species of Clostridia and in Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hbd 15895965 NP_349314.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum hbd 20162442 AAM14586.1 Clostridium beijerinckii Msed_1423 146304189 YP_001191505 Metallosphaera sedula Msed_0399 146303184 YP_001190500 Metallosphaera sedula Msed_0389 146303174 YP_001190490 Metallosphaera sedula Msed_1993 146304741 YP_001192057 Metallosphaera sedula

Various alcohol dehydrogenases represent good candidates for converting 3-oxoadipate to 3-hydroxyadipate (step H, FIG. 10) or 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate to 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate (step H, FIG. 11). Two such enzymes capable of converting an oxoacid to a hydroxyacid are encoded by the malate dehydrogenase (mdh) and lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA) genes in E. coli. In addition, lactate dehydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha has been shown to demonstrate high activities on substrates of various chain lengths such as lactate, 2-oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentanoate and 2-oxoglutarate (Steinbuchel et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 130:329-334 (1983)). Conversion of alpha-ketoadipate into alpha-hydroxyadipate can be catalyzed by 2-ketoadipate reductase, an enzyme reported to be found in rat and in human placenta (Suda et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 176:610-620 (1976); Suda et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 77:586-591 (1977)). An additional candidate for these steps is the mitochondrial 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (bdh) from the human heart which has been cloned and characterized (Marks et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:15459-15463 (1992)). This enzyme is a dehydrogenase that operates on a 3-hydroxyacid. Another exemplary alcohol dehydrogenase converts acetone to isopropanol as was shown in C. beijerinckii (Ismaiel et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:5097-5105 (1993) and T. brockii (Lamed et al., Biochem. J. 195:183-190 (1981); Peretz et al., Biochemistry 28:6549-6555 (1989)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism mdh 1789632 AAC76268.1 Escherichia coli ldhA 16129341 NP_415898.1 Escherichia coli ldh 113866693 YP_725182.1 Ralstonia eutropha bdh 177198 AAA58352.1 Homo sapiens adh 60592974 AAA23199.2 Clostridium beijerinckii adh 113443 P14941.1 Thermoanaerobacter brockii

1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde). The transformations of adipyl-CoA to adipate semialdehyde (Step N, FIG. 10) and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde (Step U, FIG. 10; Step N, FIG. 11) require acyl-CoA dehydrogenases capable of reducing an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde. Exemplary genes that encode such enzymes include the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr 1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Reiser et al., J. Bacteriology 179:2969-2975 (1997)), the Acinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002)), and a CoA- and NADP-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene in Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). SucD of P. gingivalis is another succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Takahashi et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:4704-4710 (2000)). The enzyme acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp, encoded by bphG, is yet another candidate as it has been demonstrated to oxidize and acylate acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde (Powlowski et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:377-385 (1993)). In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxidize the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al., J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 18:43-55 (1972); Koo et al., Biotechnol Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism acr1 50086359 YP_047869.1 Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 1684886 AAC45217 Acinetobacter baylyi acr1 18857901 BAB85476.1 Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1 sucD 172046062 P38947.1 Clostridium kluyveri sucD 34540484 NP_904963.1 Porphyromonas gingivalis bphG 425213 BAA03892.1 Pseudomonas sp adhE 55818563 AAV66076.1 Leuconostoc mesenteroides

An additional enzyme type that converts an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde is malonyl-CoA reductase which transforms malonyl-CoA to malonic semialdehyde. Malonyl-CoA reductase is a key enzyme in autotrophic carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle in thermoacidophilic archaeal bacteria (Berg et al., supra; Thauer R. K., Science 318:1732-1733 (2007)). The enzyme utilizes NADPH as a cofactor and has been characterized in Metallosphaera and Sulfolobus spp (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by Msed 0709 in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et al., supra; Berg et al., supra). A gene encoding a malonyl-CoA reductase from Sulfolobus tokodaii was cloned and heterologously expressed in E. coli (Alber et al., supra). This enzyme has also been shown to catalyze the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde (WO/2007/141208). Although the aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality of these enzymes is similar to the bifunctional dehydrogenase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus, there is little sequence similarity. Both malonyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates have high sequence similarity to aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme catalyzing the reduction and concurrent dephosphorylation of aspartyl-4-phosphate to aspartate semialdehyde. Additional gene candidates can be found by sequence homology to proteins in other organisms including Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and have been listed below. Yet another candidate for CoA-acylating aldehyde dehydrogenase is the ald gene from Clostridium beijerinckii (Toth et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 65:4973-4980 (1999)). This enzyme has been reported to reduce acetyl-CoA and butyryl-CoA to their corresponding aldehydes. This gene is very similar to cutE that encodes acetaldehyde dehydrogenase of Salmonella typhimurium and E. coli (Toth et al., supra).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism Msed_0709 146303492 YP_001190808.1 Metallosphaera sedula mcr 15922498 NP_378167.1 Sulfolobus tokodaii asd-2 15898958 NP_343563.1 Sulfolobus solfataricus Saci_2370 70608071 YP_256941.1 Sulfolobus acidocaldarius Ald 49473535 AAT66436 Clostridium beijerinckii eutE 687645 AAA80209 Salmonella typhimurium eutE 2498347 P77445 Escherichia coli

1.3.1.a Oxidoreductase Operating on CH—CH Donors. Referring to FIG. 10, step D refers to the conversion of 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA by 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase. Referring to FIG. 11, step D refers to the conversion of 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA. Enoyl-CoA reductase enzymes are suitable enzymes for either transformation. One exemplary enoyl-CoA reductase is the gene product of bcd from C. acetobutylicum (Boynton et al., J Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996); Atsumi et al., Metab. Eng. 2008 10(6):305-311 (2008) (Epub Sep. 14, 2007), which naturally catalyzes the reduction of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA. Activity of this enzyme can be enhanced by expressing bcd in conjunction with expression of the C. acetobutylicum etfAB genes, which encode an electron transfer flavoprotein. An additional candidate for the enoyl-CoA reductase step is the mitochondrial enoyl-CoA reductase from E. gracilis (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). A construct derived from this sequence following the removal of its mitochondrial targeting leader sequence was cloned in E. coli resulting in an active enzyme (Hoffmeister et al., supra). This approach is well known to those skilled in the art of expressing eukaryotic genes, particularly those with leader sequences that may target the gene product to a specific intracellular compartment, in prokaryotic organisms. A close homolog of this gene, TDE0597, from the prokaryote Treponema denticola represents a third enoyl-CoA reductase which has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Tucci et al., FEBS Letters 581:1561-1566 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism bcd 15895968 NP_349317.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfA 15895966 NP_349315.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfB 15895967 NP_349316.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum TER 62287512 Q5EU90.1 Euglena gracilis TDE0597 42526113 NP_971211.1 Treponema denticola

Step J of both FIGS. 10 and 11 requires a 2-enoate reductase enzyme. 2-Enoate reductases (EC 1.3.1.31) are known to catalyze the NAD(P)H-dependent reduction of a wide variety of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids and aldehydes (Rohdich et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). 2-Enoate reductase is encoded by enr in several species of Clostridia (Giesel et al., Arch Microbiol 135:51-57 (1983)) including C. tyrobutyricum, and C. thermoaceticum (now called Moorella thermoaceticum) (Rohdich et al., supra). In the published genome sequence of C. kluyveri, 9 coding sequences for enoate reductases have been reported, out of which one has been characterized (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105:2128-2133 (2008)). The enr genes from both C. tyrobutyricum and C. thermoaceticum have been cloned and sequenced and show 59% identity to each other. The former gene is also found to have approximately 75% similarity to the characterized gene in C. kluyveri (Giesel et al., supra). It has been reported based on these sequence results that enr is very similar to the dienoyl CoA reductase in E. coli (fadH) (Rohdich et al., supra). The C. thermoaceticum enr gene has also been expressed in an enzymatically active form in E. coli (Rohdich et al., supra).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism fadH 16130976 NP_417552.1 Escherichia coli enr 169405742 ACA54153.1 Clostridium botulinum A3 str enr 2765041 CAA71086.1 Clostridium tyrobutyricum enr 3402834 CAA76083.1 Clostridium kluyveri enr 83590886 YP_430895.1 Moorella thermoacetica

1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase Operating on Amino Acids.

FIG. 10 depicts two reductive aminations. Specifically, step P of FIG. 10 involves the conversion of adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate and step W of FIG. 10 entails the conversion of 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde to hexamethylenediamine. The latter transformation is also required in FIG. 11, Step P.

Most oxidoreductases operating on amino acids catalyze the oxidative deamination of alpha-amino acids with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor, though the reactions are typically reversible. Exemplary oxidoreductases operating on amino acids include glutamate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by gdhA, leucine dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by ldh, and aspartate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by nadX. The gdhA gene product from Escherichia coli (McPherson et al., Nucleic. Acids Res. 11:5257-5266 (1983); Korber et al., J. Mol. Biol. 234:1270-1273 (1993)), gdh from Thermotoga maritima (Kort et al., Extremophiles 1:52-60 (1997); Lebbink et al., J. Mol. Biol. 280:287-296 (1998); Lebbink et al., J. Mol. Biol. 289:357-369 (1999)), and gdhA1 from Halobacterium salinarum (Ingoldsby et al., Gene. 349:237-244 (2005)) catalyze the reversible interconversion of glutamate to 2-oxoglutarate and ammonia, while favoring NADP(H), NAD(H), or both, respectively. The ldh gene of Bacillus cereus encodes the LeuDH protein that has a wide of range of substrates including leucine, isoleucine, valine, and 2-aminobutanoate (Stoyan et al., J. Biotechnol 54:77-80 (1997); Ansorge et al., Biotechnol Bioeng. 68:557-562 (2000)). The nadX gene from Thermotoga maritime encoding for the aspartate dehydrogenase is involved in the biosynthesis of NAD (Yang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:8804-8808 (2003)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gdhA 118547 P00370 Escherichia coli gdh 6226595 P96110.4 Thermotoga maritima gdhA1 15789827 NP_279651.1 Halobacterium salinarum ldh 61222614 P0A393 Bacillus cereus nadX 15644391 NP_229443.1 Thermotoga maritima

The lysine 6-dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by the lysDH genes, catalyze the oxidative deamination of the s-amino group of L-lysine to form 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde, which in turn nonenzymatically cyclizes to form Δ¹-piperideine-6-carboxylate (Misono et al., J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)). Exemplary enzymes can be found in Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Heydari et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol 70:937-942 (2004)), Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Hashimoto et al., J Biochem 106:76-80 (1989); Misono et al., supra), and Achromobacter denitrificans (Ruldeekulthamrong et al., BMB. Rep. 41:790-795 (2008)). Such enzymes are particularly good candidates for converting adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate given the structural similarity between adipate semialdehyde and 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism lysDH 13429872 BAB39707 Geobacillus stearothermophilus lysDH 15888285 NP_353966 Agrobacterium tumefaciens lysDH 74026644 AAZ94428 Achromobacter denitrificans

2.3.1.b Acyl transferase. Referring to FIG. 10, step A involves 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, or equivalently, succinyl CoA:acetyl CoA acyl transferase (β-ketothiolase). The gene products encoded by pcaF in Pseudomonas strain B13 (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002)), phaD in Pseudomonas putida U (Olivera et al., supra), paaE in Pseudomonas fluorescens ST (Di Gennaro et al., supra), and paaJ from E. coli (Nogales et al., supra) catalyze the conversion of 3-oxoadipyl-CoA into succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA during the degradation of aromatic compounds such as phenylacetate or styrene. Since β-ketothiolase enzymes catalyze reversible transformations, these enzymes can be employed for the synthesis of 3-oxoadipyl-CoA. For example, the ketothiolase phaA from R. eutropha combines two molecules of acetyl-CoA to form acetoacetyl-CoA (Sato et al., J Biosci Bioeng 103:38-44 (2007)). Similarly, a β-keto thiolase (bktB) has been reported to catalyze the condensation of acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA to form β-ketovaleryl-CoA (Slater et al., J. Bacteriol. 180:1979-1987 (1998)) in R. eutropha. In addition to the likelihood of possessing 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase activity, all such enzymes represent good candidates for condensing 4-aminobutyryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA to form 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA (step A, FIG. 11) either in their native forms or once they have been appropriately engineered.

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism paaJ 16129358 NP_415915.1 Escherichia coli pcaF 17736947 AAL02407 Pseudomonas knackmussii (B13) phaD 3253200 AAC24332.1 Pseudomonas putida paaE 106636097 ABF82237.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens

2-Amino-4-oxopentanoate (AKP) thiolase or AKP thiolase (AKPT) enzymes present additional candidates for performing step A in FIGS. 10 and 11. AKPT is a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzyme participating in ornithine degradation in Clostridium sticklandii (Jeng et al., Biochemistry 13:2898-2903 (1974); Kenklies et al., Microbiology 145:819-826 (1999)). A gene cluster encoding the alpha and beta subunits of AKPT (or-2 (ortA) and or-3 (ortB)) was recently identified and the biochemical properties of the enzyme were characterized (Fonknechten et al., J. Bacteriol. In Press (2009)). The enzyme is capable of operating in both directions and naturally reacts with the D-isomer of alanine AKPT from Clostridium sticklandii has been characterized but its protein sequence has not yet been published. Enzymes with high sequence homology are found in Clostridium difficile, Alkaliphilus metalliredigenes QYF, Thermoanaerobacter sp. X514, and Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4 (Fonknechten et al., supra).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism ortA (α) 126698017 YP_001086914.1 Clostridium difficile 630 ortB (β) 126698018 YP_001086915.1 Clostridium difficile 630 Amet_2368 150390132 YP_001320181.1 Alkaliphilus (α) metalliredigenes QYF Amet_2369 150390133 YP_001320182.1 Alkaliphilus (β) metalliredigenes QYF Teth514_1478 167040116 YP_001663101.1 Thermoanaerobacter (α) sp. X514 Teth514_1479 167040117 YP_001663102.1 Thermoanaerobacter (β) sp. X514 TTE1235 (α) 20807687 NP_622858.1 Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4 thrC (β) 20807688 NP_622859.1 Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4

2.6.1.a Aminotransferase. Step O of FIGS. 10 and 11 and Step V of FIG. 10 require transamination of a 6-aldehyde to an amine. These transformations can be catalyzed by gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase (GABA transaminase). One E. coli GABA transaminase is encoded by gabT and transfers an amino group from glutamate to the terminal aldehyde of succinyl semialdehyde (Bartsch et al., J. Bacteriol. 172:7035-7042 (1990)). The gene product of puuE catalyzes another 4-aminobutyrate transaminase in E. coli (Kurihara et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4602-4608 (2005)). GABA transaminases in Mus musculus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Sus scrofa have been shown to react with 6-aminocaproic acid (Cooper, Methods Enzymol. 113:80-82 (1985); Scott et al., J. Biol. Chem. 234:932-936 (1959)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism gabT 16130576 NP_417148.1 Escherichia coli puuE 16129263 NP_415818.1 Escherichia coli abat 37202121 NP_766549.2 Mus musculus gabT 70733692 YP_257332.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens abat 47523600 NP_999428.1 Sus scrofa

Additional enzyme candidates include putrescine aminotransferases or other diamine aminotransferases. Such enzymes are particularly well suited for carrying out the conversion of 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde to hexamethylenediamine. The E. coli putrescine aminotransferase is encoded by the ygjG gene and the purified enzyme also was able to transaminate cadaverine and spermidine (Samsonova et al., BMC Microbiol 3:2 (2003)). In addition, activity of this enzyme on 1,7-diaminoheptane and with amino acceptors other than 2-oxoglutarate (e.g., pyruvate, 2-oxobutanoate) has been reported (Samsonova et al., supra; Kim, K. H., J Biol Chem 239:783-786 (1964)). A putrescine aminotransferase with higher activity with pyruvate as the amino acceptor than alpha-ketoglutarate is the spuC gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Lu et al., J Bacteriol 184:3765-3773 (2002)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism ygjG 145698310 NP_417544 Escherichia coli spuC 9946143 AAG03688 Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Yet additional candidate enzymes include beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferases which produce malonate semialdehyde from beta-alanine (WO08027742). The gene product of SkPYD4 in Saccharomyces kluyveri was also shown to preferentially use beta-alanine as the amino group donor (Andersen et al., FEBS. J. 274:1804-1817 (2007)). SkUGA1 encodes a homologue of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GABA aminotransferase, UGA1 (Ramos et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 149:401-404 (1985)), whereas SkPYD4 encodes an enzyme involved in both β-alanine and GABA transamination (Andersen et al., supra). 3-Amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase catalyzes the transformation from methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. This enzyme has been characterized in Rattus norvegicus and Sus scrofa and is encoded by Abat (Tamaki et al, Methods Enzymol, 324:376-389 (2000)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism SkyPYD4 98626772 ABF58893.1 Saccharomyces kluyveri SkUGA1 98626792 ABF58894.1 Saccharomyces kluyveri UGA1 6321456 NP_011533.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Abat 122065191 P50554.3 Rattus norvegicus Abat 120968 P80147.2 Sus scrofa

2.8.3.a Coenzyme-A transferase. CoA transferases catalyze reversible reactions that involve the transfer of a CoA moiety from one molecule to another. For example, step E of FIG. 10 is catalyzed by a 3-oxoadipyl-CoA transferase. In this step, 3-oxoadipate is formed by the transfer of the CoA group from 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to succinate, acetate, or another CoA acceptor. Step E of FIG. 11 entails the transfer of a CoA moiety from another 3-oxoacyl-CoA, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA. One candidate enzyme for these steps is the two-unit enzyme encoded by pcaI and pcaJ in Pseudomonas, which has been shown to have 3-oxoadipyl-CoA/succinate transferase activity (Kaschabek et al., supra). Similar enzymes based on homology exist in Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 (Kowalchuk et al., Gene 146:23-30 (1994)) and Streptomyces coelicolor. Additional exemplary succinyl-CoA:3:oxoacid-CoA transferases are present in Helicobacter pylori (Corthesy-Theulaz et al., J. Biol. Chem. 272:25659-25667 (1997)) and Bacillus subtilis (Stols et al., Protein. Expr. Purif. 53:396-403 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pcaI 24985644 AAN69545.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaJ 26990657 NP_746082.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaI 50084858 YP_046368.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 pcaJ 141776 AAC37147.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 pcaI 21224997 NP_630776.1 Streptomyces coelicolor pcaJ 21224996 NP_630775.1 Streptomyces coelicolor HPAG1_0676 108563101 YP_627417 Helicobacter pylori HPAG1_0677 108563102 YP_627418 Helicobacter pylori ScoA 16080950 NP_391778 Bacillus subtilis ScoB 16080949 NP_391777 Bacillus subtilis

A 3-oxoacyl-CoA transferase that can utilize acetate as the CoA acceptor is acetoacetyl-CoA transferase, encoded by the E. coli atoA (alpha subunit) and atoD (beta subunit) genes (Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res Commun. 33:902-908 (1968); Korolev et al., Acta Crystallogr. D Biol Crystallogr. 58:2116-2121 (2002)). This enzyme has also been shown to transfer the CoA moiety to acetate from a variety of branched and linear acyl-CoA substrates, including isobutyrate (Matthies et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 58:1435-1439 (1992)), valerate (Vanderwinkel et al., supra) and butanoate (Vanderwinkel et al., supra). Similar enzymes exist in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 (Duncan et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 68:5186-5190 (2002)), Clostridium acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 56:1576-1583 (1990)), and Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 71:58-68 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism atoA 2492994 P76459.1 Escherichia coli K12 atoD 2492990 P76458.1 Escherichia coli K12 actA 62391407 YP_226809.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 cg0592 62389399 YP_224801.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 ctfA 15004866 NP_149326.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfB 15004867 NP_149327.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfA 31075384 AAP42564.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum ctfB 31075385 AAP42565.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum

The above enzymes may also exhibit the desired activities on adipyl-CoA and adipate (FIG. 10, step K) or 6-aminocaproate and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA (FIG. 10, step Q; FIG. 2, step K). Nevertheless, additional exemplary transferase candidates are catalyzed by the gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri which have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and butyryl-CoA transferase activity, respectively (Seedorf et al., supra; Sohling et al., Eur. J Biochem. 212:121-127 (1993); Sohling et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism cat1 729048 P38946.1 Clostridium kluyveri cat2 172046066 P38942.2 Clostridium kluyveri cat3 146349050 EDK35586.1 Clostridium kluyveri

The glutaconate-CoA-transferase (EC 2.8.3.12) enzyme from anaerobic bacterium Acidaminococcus fermentans reacts with diacid glutaconyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack et al., FEBS Lett. 405:209-212 (1997)). The genes encoding this enzyme are gctA and gctB. This enzyme has reduced but detectable activity with other CoA derivatives including glutaryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA and acrylyl-CoA (Buckel et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 118:315-321 (1981)). The enzyme has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Mack et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gctA 559392 CAA57199.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans gctB 559393 CAA57200.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans

3.1.2.a Thiolester hydrolase (CoA specific). Several eukaryotic acetyl-CoA hydrolases have broad substrate specificity and thus represent suitable candidate enzymes for hydrolyzing 3-oxoadipyl-CoA, adipyl-CoA, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA, or 6-aminocaproyl-CoA (Steps G and M of FIGS. 10 and 11). For example, the enzyme from Rattus norvegicus brain (Robinson et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 71:959-965 (1976)) can react with butyryl-CoA, hexanoyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism acot12 18543355 NP_570103.1 Rattus norvegicus

Additional hydrolase enzymes include 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase which has been described to efficiently catalyze the conversion of 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate during valine degradation (Shimomura et al., J Biol Chem. 269:14248-14253 (1994)). Genes encoding this enzyme include hibch of Rattus norvegicus (Shimomura et al., supra; Shimomura et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:229-240 (2000)) and Homo sapiens (Shimomura et al., supra). Candidate genes by sequence homology include hibch of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and BC 2292 of Bacillus cereus.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hibch 146324906 Q5XIE6.2 Rattus norvegicus hibch 146324905 Q6NVY1.2 Homo sapiens hibch 2506374 P28817.2 Saccharomyces cerevisiae BC_2292 29895975 AP09256 Bacillus cereus

Yet another candidate hydrolase is the human dicarboxylic acid thioesterase, acot8, which exhibits activity on glutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA, suberyl-CoA, sebacyl-CoA, and dodecanedioyl-CoA (Westin et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:38125-38132 (2005)) and the closest E. coli homolog, tesB, which can also hydrolyze a broad range of CoA thiolesters (Naggert et al., J Biol Chem 266:11044-11050 (1991)). A similar enzyme has also been characterized in the rat liver (Deana R., Biochem Int 26:767-773 (1992)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism tesB 16128437 NP_414986 Escherichia coli acot8 3191970 CAA15502 Homo sapiens acot8 51036669 NP_570112 Rattus norvegicus

Other potential E. coli thiolester hydrolases include the gene products of tesA (Bonner et al., J Biol Chem 247:3123-3133 (1972)), ybgC (Kuznetsova et al., FEMS Microbiol Rev 29:263-279 (2005); Zhuang et al., FEBS Lett 516:161-163 (2002)), pacI (Song et al., J Biol Chem 281:11028-11038 (2006)), and ybdB (Leduc et al., J Bacteriol 189:7112-7126 (2007)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism tesA 16128478 NP_415027 Escherichia coli ybgC 16128711 NP_415264 Escherichia coli paaI 16129357 NP_415914 Escherichia coli ybdB 16128580 NP_415129 Escherichia coli

6.3.1.a/6.3.2.a amide synthases/peptide synthases. The direct conversion of 6-aminocaproate to caprolactam (Step S, FIG. 10; Step R, FIG. 11) requires the formation of an intramolecular peptide bond. Ribosomes, which assemble amino acids into proteins during translation, are nature's most abundant peptide bond-forming catalysts. Nonribosomal peptide synthetases are peptide bond forming catalysts that do not involve messenger mRNA (Schwarzer et al., Nat. Prod. Rep. 20:275-287 (2003)). Additional enzymes capable of forming peptide bonds include acyl-CoA synthetase from Pseudomonas chlororaphis (Abe et al., J Biol Chem 283:11312-11321 (2008)), gamma-Glutamylputrescine synthetase from E. coli (Kurihara et al., J Biol Chem 283:19981-19990 (2008)), and beta-lactam synthetase from Streptomyces clavuligerus (Bachmann et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:9082-9086 (1998); Bachmann et al., Biochemistry 39:11187-11193 (2000); Miller et al., Nat. Struct. Biol 8:684-689 (2001); Miller et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:14752-14757 (2002); Tahlan et al., Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother. 48:930-939 (2004)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism acsA 60650089 BAD90933 Pseudomonas chlororaphis puuA 87081870 AAC74379 Escherichia coli bls 41016784 Q9R8E3 Streptomyces clavuligerus

4.2.1.a Hydrolyase. Most dehydratases catalyze the α,β-elimination of water. This involves activation of the α-hydrogen by an electron-withdrawing carbonyl, carboxylate, or CoA-thiol ester group and removal of the hydroxyl group from the β-position. Enzymes exhibiting activity on substrates with an electron-withdrawing carboxylate group are excellent candidates for dehydrating 3-hydroxyadipate (FIG. 10, Step I) or 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate (FIG. 11, Step I).

For example, fumarase enzymes naturally catalyze the reversible dehydration of malate to fumarate. E. coli has three fumarases: FumA, FumB, and FumC that are regulated by growth conditions. FumB is oxygen sensitive and only active under anaerobic conditions. FumA is active under microanaerobic conditions, and FumC is the only active enzyme in aerobic growth (Tseng et al., J Bacteriol 183:461-467 (2001); Woods et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 954:14-26 (1988); Guest et al., J Gen Microbiol 131:2971-2984 (1985)). Additional enzyme candidates are found in Campylobacter jejuni (Smith et al., Int. J Biochem. Cell Biol 31:961-975 (1999)), Thermus thermophilus (Mizobata et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 355:49-55 (1998)) and Rattus norvegicus (Kobayashi et al., J Biochem. 89:1923-1931 (1981)). Similar enzymes with high sequence homology include fuml from Arabidopsis thaliana and fumC from Corynebacterium glutamicum. The MmcBC fumarase from Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum is another class of fumarase with two subunits (Shimoyama et al., FEMS Microbiol Lett 270:207-213 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism fumA 81175318 P0AC33 Escherichia coli fumB 33112655 P14407 Escherichia coli fumC 120601 P05042 Escherichia coli fumC 9789756 O69294 Campylobacter jejuni fumC 3062847 BAA25700 Thermus thermophilus fumH 120605 P14408 Rattus norvegicus fum1 39931311 P93033 Arabidopsis thaliana fumC 39931596 Q8NRN8 Corynebacterium glutamicum MmcB 147677691 YP_001211906 Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum MmcC 147677692 YP_001211907 Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum

Two additional dehydratase candidates are 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase and dimethylmaleate hydratase, enzymes studied for their role in nicontinate catabolism in Eubacterium barkeri (formerly Clostridium barkeri) (Alhapel et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:12341-6 (2006)). 2-(Hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase is a [4Fe-4S]-containing enzyme that dehydrates 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate to 2-methylene-glutarate. This enzyme is encoded by hmd in Eubacterium barkeri (Alhapel et al., supra). Similar enzymes with high sequence homology are found in Bacteroides capillosus, Anaerotruncus colihominis, and Natranaerobius thermophilius. These enzymes are homologous to the alpha and beta subunits of [4Fe-4S]-containing bacterial serine dehydratases (e.g., E. coli enzymes encoded by tdcG, sdhB, and sdaA).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hmd 86278275 ABC88407.1 Eubacterium barkeri BACCAP_02294 154498305 ZP_02036683.1 Bacteroides capillosus ANACOL_02527 167771169 ZP_02443222.1 Anaerotruncus colihominis DSM 17241 NtherDRAFT_2368 169192667 ZP_02852366.1 Natranaerobius thermophilus JW/NM-WN-LF

Dimethylmaleate hydratase (EC 4.2.1.85) is a reversible Fe²⁺-dependent and oxygen-sensitive enzyme in the aconitase family that hydrates dimethylmaeate to form (2R,3S)-2,3-dimethylmalate. This enzyme is encoded by dmdAB in Eubacterium barkeri (Alhapel et al., supra; Kollmann-Koch et al., Hoppe Seylers. Z. Physiol Chem. 365:847-857 (1984)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism dmdA 86278276 ABC88408 Eubacterium barkeri dmdB 86278277 ABC88409.1 Eubacterium barkeri

An additional enzyme candidate is 2-methylmalate dehydratase, also called citramalate hydrolyase, a reversible hydrolyase that catalyzes the alpha, beta elimination of water from citramalate to form mesaconate. This enzyme has been purified and characterized in Clostridium tetanomorphum (Wang et al., J Biol. Chem. 244:2516-2526 (1969)). The activity of this enzyme has also been detected in several bacteria in the genera Citrobacter and Morganella in the context of the glutamate degradation VI pathway (Kato et al., Arch. Microbiol 168:457-463 (1997)). Genes encoding this enzyme have not been identified in any organism to date.

Enzymes exhibiting activity on substrates with an electron-withdrawing CoA-thiol ester group adjacent to the α-hydrogen are excellent candidates for dehydrating 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA (FIG. 10, Step C) or 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA (FIG. 11, Step C). The enoyl-CoA hydratases, phaA and phaB, of P. putida are believed to carry out the hydroxylation of double bonds during phenylacetate catabolism (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)). The paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens catalyze analogous transformations (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC (Park et al., J Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397 (2003)), paaF (Ismail et al., supra; Park et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park et al., Biotechnol Bioeng 86:681-686 (2004)) and paaG (Ismail et al., supra; Park et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park et al., Biotechnol Bioeng 86:681-686 (2004)). Crotonase enzymes are additional candidates for dehydrating the required 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA molecules depicted in FIGS. 10 and 11. These enzymes are required for n-butanol formation in some organisms, particularly Clostridial species, and also comprise one step of the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle in thermoacidophilic Archaea of the genera Sulfolobus, Acidianus, and Metallosphaera. Exemplary genes encoding crotonase enzymes can be found in C. acetobutylicum (Boynton et al., supra), C. kluyveri (Hillmer et al., FEBS Lett. 21:351-354 (1972)), and Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., supra) though the sequence of the latter gene is not known. Enoyl-CoA hydratases, which are involved in fatty acid beta-oxidation and/or the metabolism of various amino acids, can also catalyze the hydration of crotonyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol 117:99-108 (1978); Agnihotri et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. 11:9-20 (2003); Conrad et al., J. Bacteriol. 118:103-111 (1974)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism paaA 26990002 NP_745427.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens paaB 26990001 NP_745426.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens phaA 106636093 ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas putida phaB 106636094 ABF82234.1 Pseudomonas putida maoC 16129348 NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli paaF 16129354 NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli paaG 16129355 NP_415912.1 Escherichia coli crt 15895969 NP_349318.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum crt1 153953091 YP_001393856 Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555

6.2.1.a Acid-thiol ligase. Steps F, L, and R of FIG. 10 and Steps F and L of FIG. 11 require acid-thiol ligase or synthetase functionality (the terms ligase, synthetase, and synthase are used herein interchangeably and refer to the same enzyme class). Exemplary genes encoding enzymes likely to carry out these transformations include the sucCD genes of E. coli which naturally form a succinyl-CoA synthetase complex. This enzyme complex naturally catalyzes the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate with the concaminant consumption of one ATP, a reaction which is reversible in vivo (Buck et al., Biochem. 24:6245-6252 (1985)). Given the structural similarity between succinate and adipate, that is, both are straight chain dicarboxylic acids, it is reasonable to expect some activity of the sucCD enzyme on adipyl-CoA.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism sucC 16128703 NP_415256.1 Escherichia coli sucD 1786949 AAC73823.1 Escherichia coli

Additional exemplary CoA-ligases include the rat dicarboxylate-CoA ligase for which the sequence is yet uncharacterized (Vamecq et al., Biochemical Journal 230:683-693 (1985)), either of the two characterized phenylacetate-CoA ligases from P. chrysogenum (Lamas-Maceiras et al., Biochem. J. 395:147-155 (2005); Wang et al., Biochem Biophy Res Commun 360(2):453-458 (2007)), the phenylacetate-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida (Martinez-Blanco et al., J. Biol. Chem. 265:7084-7090 (1990)), and the 6-carboxyhexanoate-CoA ligase from Bacilis subtilis (Bower et al., J. Bacteriol. 178(14):4122-4130 (1996)). Additional candidate enzymes are acetoacetyl-CoA synthetases from Mus musculus (Hasegawa et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 1779:414-419 (2008)) and Homo sapiens (Ohgami et al., Biochem Pharmacol 65:989-994 (2003)) which naturally catalyze the ATP-dependant conversion of acetoacetate into acetoacetyl-CoA.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism phl 77019264 CAJ15517.1 Penicillium chrysogenum phlB 152002983 ABS19624.1 Penicillium chrysogenum paaF 22711873 AAC24333.2 Pseudomonas putida bioW 50812281 NP_390902.2 Bacillus subtilis AACS 21313520 NP_084486.1 Mus musculus AACS 31982927 NP_076417.2 Homo sapiens

ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACD, EC 6.2.1.13) is another candidate enzyme that couples the conversion of acyl-CoA esters to their corresponding acids with the concurrent synthesis of ATP. Several enzymes with broad substrate specificities have been described in the literature. ACD I from Archaeoglobus fulgidus, encoded by AF1211, was shown to operate on a variety of linear and branched-chain substrates including acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, butyryl-CoA, acetate, propionate, butyrate, isobutyryate, isovalerate, succinate, fumarate, phenylacetate, indoleacetate (Musfeldt et al., J Bacteriol 184:636-644 (2002)). The enzyme from Haloarcula marismortui (annotated as a succinyl-CoA synthetase) accepts propionate, butyrate, and branched-chain acids (isovalerate and isobutyrate) as substrates, and was shown to operate in the forward and reverse directions (Brasen et al., Arch Microbiol 182:277-287 (2004)). The ACD encoded by PAE3250 from hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum showed the broadest substrate range of all characterized ACDs, reacting with acetyl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA (preferred substrate) and phenylacetyl-CoA (Brasen et al., supra). The enzymes from A. fulgidus, H. marismortui and P. aerophilum have all been cloned, functionally expressed, and characterized in E. coli (Musfeldt et al., supra; Brasen et al., supra).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism AF1211 11498810 NP_070039.1 Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304 scs 55377722 YP_135572.1 Haloarcula marismortui ATCC 43049 PAE3250 18313937 NP_560604.1 Pyrobaculum aerophilum str. IM2

Yet another option is to employ a set of enzymes with net ligase or synthetase activity. For example, phosphotransadipylase and adipate kinase enzymes are catalyzed by the gene products of buk1, buk2, and ptb from C. acetobutylicum (Walter et al., Gene 134:107-111 (1993); Huang et al., J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2:33-38 (2000)). The ptb gene encodes an enzyme that can convert butyryl-CoA into butyryl-phosphate, which is then converted to butyrate via either of the buk gene products with the concomitant generation of ATP.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism ptb 15896327 NP_349676 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk1 15896326 NP_349675 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk2 20137415 Q97II1 Clostridium acetobutylicum

No enzyme required—Spontaneous cyclization. 6-Aminocaproyl-CoA will cyclize spontaneously to caprolactam, thus eliminating the need for a dedicated enzyme for this step. A similar spontaneous cyclization is observed with 4-aminobutyryl-CoA which forms pyrrolidinone (Ohsugi et al., J Biol Chem 256:7642-7651 (1981)).

EXAMPLE XIII Preparation of a 6-Aminocaproic Acid Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA to 6-Aminocaproic acid

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing 6-aminocaproic acid from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway shown in FIG. 11 that starts from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing 6-aminocaproic acid. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, nucleic acids encoding the requisite enzymes are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), paaH (NP_415913.1), and maoC (NP_415905.1) genes encoding the 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bcd (NP_349317.1), etfAB (NP_349315.1 and NP_349316.1), and acot8 (CAA15502) genes encoding 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA hydrolase activities are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Lastly, the sucD (NP_904963.1), gabT (NP_417148.1), and cat2 (P38942.2) genes encoding succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), GABA transaminase, and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter, to increase the availability of 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 6-aminocaproic acid synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the 6-aminocaproic acid synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce 6-aminocaproic acid is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 6-aminocaproic acid synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 6-aminocaproic acid. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of 6-aminocaproic acid. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates of the 6-aminocaproic acid product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the 6-aminocaproic acid producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of 6-aminocaproic acid, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

EXAMPLE XIV Preparation of a 6-Aminocaproic Acid Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA to 6-Aminocaproic Acid

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing 6-aminocaproic acid from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the 6-aminocaproic acid pathway shown in FIG. 11 that starts from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing 6-aminocaproic acid. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 6-aminocaproic acid, nucleic acids encoding the requisite enzymes are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), pcaIJ (AAN69545.1 and NP_746082.1), and bdh (AAA58352.1) genes encoding the 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoate reductase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the enr (CAA76083.1) and hmd (ABC88407.1) genes encoding 6-aminohex-2-enoate reductase and 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoate dehydratase activities are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Lastly, the sucD (NP_904963.1), gabT (NP_417148.1), and cat2 (P38942.2) genes encoding succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), GABA transaminase, and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter, to increase the availability of 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 6-aminocaproic acid synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the 6-aminocaproic acid synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce 6-aminocaproic acid is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 6-aminocaproic acid synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 6-aminocaproic acid. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of 6-aminocaproic acid. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates of the 6-aminocaproic acid product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the 6-aminocaproic acid producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of 6-aminocaproic acid, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

EXAMPLE XV Preparation of a Caprolactam Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA and Succinyl-CoA to 6-Aminocaproic acid

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing caprolactam from acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the caprolactam pathway shown in FIG. 10 that starts from acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing caprolactam. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce caprolactam, nucleic acids encoding the requisite enzymes are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), paaH (NP_415913.1), and maoC (NP_415905.1) genes encoding the 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, 3-oxoadipyl-CoA reductase, and 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bcd (NP_349317.1) and etfAB (NP_349315.1 and NP_349316.1) genes encoding 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase activity are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Lastly, the acr1 (YP_047869.1), gabT (NP_417148.1), and bioW (NP_390902.2) genes encoding adipyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), 6-aminocaproic acid transaminase, and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for caprolactam synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the caprolactam synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce caprolactam is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional caprolactam synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of caprolactam. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of caprolactam. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates of the caprolactam product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the caprolactam producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of caprolactam, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

EXAMPLE XVI Preparation of a Hexamethylenediamine Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA and Succinyl-CoA to 6-Aminocaproic Acid

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing hexamethylenediamine from acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the hexamethylenediamine pathway shown in FIG. 10 that starts from acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing hexamethylenediamine E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce hexamethylenediamine, nucleic acids encoding the requisite enzymes are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), paaH (NP_415913.1), and maoC (NP_415905.1) genes encoding the 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, 3-oxoadipyl-CoA reductase, and 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bcd (NP_349317.1) and etfAB (NP_349315.1 and NP_349316.1) genes encoding 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase activity are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Lastly, the acr1 (YP_047869.1), gabT (NP_417148.1), bioW (NP_390902.2), and ygjG (NP_417544) genes encoding adipyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), 6-aminocaproic acid transaminase, 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase, and hexamethylenediamine transaminase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for hexamethylenediamine synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the hexamethylenediamine synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce hexamethylenediamine is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional hexamethylenediamine synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of hexamethylenediamine One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of hexamethylenediamine Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates of the hexamethylenediamine product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the hexamethylenediamine producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of hexamethylenediamine, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

EXAMPLE XVII Preparation of a Caprolactam Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA to 6-Aminocaproyl-CoA

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing caprolactam from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the caprolactam pathway shown in FIG. 11 that starts from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing caprolactam. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce caprolactam, nucleic acids encoding the requisite enzymes are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), paaH (NP_415913.1), and maoC (NP_415905.1) genes encoding the 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bcd (NP_349317.1) and etfAB (NP_349315.1 and NP_349316.1) genes encoding 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase activity are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Lastly, the sucD (NP_904963.1), gabT (NP_417148.1), and cat2 (P38942.2) genes encoding succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), GABA transaminase, and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter, to increase the availability of 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for caprolactam synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the caprolactam synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce caprolactam is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional caprolactam synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of caprolactam. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of caprolactam. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates of the caprolactam product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the caprolactam producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of caprolactam, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

EXAMPLE XVIII Preparation of a Hexamethylenediamine Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA to 6-Aminocaproyl-CoA

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing hexamethylenediamine from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the hexamethylenediamine pathway shown in FIG. XVII that starts from acetyl-CoA and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing hexamethylenediamine E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce hexamethylenediamine, nucleic acids encoding the requisite enzymes are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the paaJ (NP_415915.1), paaH (NP_415913.1), and maoC (NP_415905.1) genes encoding the 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA thiolase, 3-oxo-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxy-6-aminohexanoyl-CoA dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bcd (NP_349317.1), etfAB (NP_349315.1 and NP_349316.1), acr1 (YP_047869.1), and ygjG (NP_417544) genes encoding 6-aminohex-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), and hexamethylenediamine transaminase activities are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. Lastly, the sucD (NP_904963.1), gabT (NP_417148.1), and cat2 (P38942.2) genes encoding succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), GABA transaminase, and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase activities are cloned into a third compatible plasmid, pZS23, under the PA1/lacO promoter, to increase the availability of 4-aminobutyryl-CoA. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for hexamethylenediamine synthesis.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the hexamethylenediamine synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce hexamethylenediamine is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional hexamethylenediamine synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of hexamethylenediamine. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of hexamethylenediamine Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA intermediates of the hexamethylenediamine product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the hexamethylenediamine producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of hexamethylenediamine, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

EXAMPLE XIX Pathways for Production of 6-Aminocaproic acid from Succinic Semialdehyde and Pyruvate

This example describes exemplary pathways for production of 6-aminocaproic acid.

Novel pathways for producing 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) and related products are described herein. These pathways synthesize 6-ACA from succinic semialdehyde and pyruvate, utilizing aldolase and hydratase enzymes from the 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid degradation pathway. The candidate enzymes, and associated risks of implementation are discussed in Example XXI below.

This invention is directed, in part, to non-naturally occurring microorganisms that express genes encoding enzymes that catalyze 6-ACA production. Successfully engineering these pathways entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing the expression of these genes in the production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation.

6-aminocaproic acid and derivatives are produced from succinic semialdehyde and pyruvate in a minimum of five enzymatic steps. In the first step of all pathways, pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde are joined by 4-hydroxy-2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (HODH) aldolase. The product of this reaction, HODH, is then dehydrated by 2-oxohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) hydratase to form OHED. In subsequent steps, OHED is transaminated, decarboxylated or reduced as shown in FIG. 12.

In one route, the alkene of OHED is reduced by OHED reductase, forming 2-oxoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-OHD) (FIG. 12, Step C), a 2-ketoacid. 2-OHD is then converted to adipate semialdehyde by a ketoacid decarboxylase (FIG. 12, Step D). In the final step, the aldehyde of adipate semialdehyde is converted to an amine by an aminotransferase or an aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 12, Step E).

In a similar route, the 2-keto group of 2-OHD is transaminated by an aminotransferase or an aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 12, Step H) to form 2-aminoheptane-1,7-dioate (2-AHD). This product is then decarboxylated by 2-AHD decarboxylase to form 6-aminocapropate (FIG. 12, Step I).

In an alternate route, OHED is first decarboxylated by OHED decarboxylase (FIG. 12, Step F), resulting in the formation of 6-oxohex-4-enoate (6-OHE). The alkenal group of 6-OHE is reduced by an oxidoreductase to adipate semialdehyde (FIG. 12, Step G). Adipate semialdehyde is then converted to 6-aminocaproate by an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 12, Step E).

Yet another route calls for an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase to convert OHED to 2-aminohept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (2-AHE) (FIG. 12, Step J). The alkene of 2-AHE is subsequently reduced by an alkene oxidoreductase (FIG. 12, Step K). The product of this reaction, 2-AHD, is then decarboxylated by an amino acid decarboxylase (FIG. 12, Step I) to form 6-aminocaproate.

In yet another route, HODH is converted to 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA by either an HODH dehydrogenase or and HODH formate-lyase (FIG. 12, Step L). 3-Hydroxyadipyl-CoA is subsequently dehydrated and reduced to form adipyl-CoA (FIG. 12, Steps M, N). Adipyl-CoA is reduced and de-acylated to form adipate semialdehyde (FIG. 12, Step O), which is then converted to 6-aminocaproate by an aminotransferase or an aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 12, Step E).

In a similar route, HODH is first converted to OHED (FIG. 12, Step B), as described above. OHED is then converted to 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA by a dehydrogenase or an OHED formate-lyase (FIG. 12, Step P). 2,3-Dihydroadipyl-CoA is then reduced to adipyl-CoA (FIG. 12, Step N), which is converted to 6-aminocaproate via adipate semialdehyde (FIG. 12, Steps O, E), as described previously.

In the final route, HODH is converted to 2-OHD via steps B and C, as described previously. A 2-OHD formate-lyase or dehydrogenase converts 2-OHD to adipyl-CoA (FIG. 12, Step Q), which is then reduced by a CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (FIG. 12, Step O). The product, adipate semialdehyde, is converted to 6-aminocaproate by an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 12, Step E).

The routes detailed in FIG. 12 are able to achieve the maximum theoretical 6-ACA yield of 0.8 moles 6-ACA per mole glucose utilized. The energetic yield is also favorable, with a maximum of 1.6 moles ATP per mole glucose utilized at the maximum product yield. The following assumptions were used to calculate yield: 1) phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase is able to operate in the ATP-generating direction, 2) NH4 and 6-ACA are transported into the cell by proton antiport, and 3) succinic semialdehyde is formed from alpha-ketoglutarate and/or succinyl-CoA. Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase is a NAD(P)H and CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase that converts succinyl-CoA to succinic semialdehyde. Succinic semialdehyde is formed from alpha-ketoglutarate by two enzymes: alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and 4-aminobutyrate transaminase.

EXAMPLE XX Pathways for Production of Hexamethylenediamine from 6-Aminocaproate

This example describes exemplary pathways for production of hexamethylenediamine

Novel pathways for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) and related products are described herein. This pathway synthesizes HMDA from 6-Aminocaproate (6-ACA). These pathways involve activation of the acid group by phosphorylation and/or acylation. Acetylation of the terminal amino group provides protection from spontaneous cyclization of pathway intermediates. The candidate enzymes, and associated risks of implementation are discussed in Example XXI below.

This invention is directed, in part, to non-naturally occurring microorganisms that express genes encoding enzymes that catalyze HMDA production. Successfully engineering these pathways entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing the expression of these genes in the production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation.

Several pathways for producing HMDA from 6-aminocaproate are detailed in FIG. 13. All routes entail activation of the carboxylic acid group, followed by reduction and transamination. In three routes, 6-aminocaproate is activated directly while in other routes, the terminal amine group is protected by N-acetylation to prevent spontaneous cyclization.

In one route, 6-aminocaproate is phosphorylated to 6-AHOP by 6-aminocaproate kinase (FIG. 13, Step A). 6-AHOP is then reduced to 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde (FIG. 13, Step B) and subsequently transaminated (FIG. 13, Step C) by an aminotransferase or an aminating oxidoreductase.

Alternately, 6-AHOP is converted to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA by an acyltransferase (FIG. 13, Step L). 6-Aminocaproyl-CoA is then reduced to 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde by a CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (FIG. 13, Step N). HMDA is then formed by transamination of 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde by an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 13, Step C).

In yet another route, 6-aminocaproate is first activated to a CoA derivative by a CoA transferase or CoA ligase (FIG. 13, Step M). The product, 6-aminocaproyl-CoA, may spontaneously cyclize, or be converted to 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde by an aldehyde-forming CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (FIG. 13, Step N). 6-Aminocaproic semialdehyde is converted to HMDA by an aminotransferase or an aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 13, Step C).

Additional routes proceed from 6-acetamidohexanoate, the acetylated product of 6-aminocaproate N-acetyltransferase. 6-Acetamidohexanoate is converted to 6-acetamidohexanal by different routes (described below). In the final two steps of these routes, 6-acetamidohexanal is first converted to 6-acetamidohexanamine by an aminotransferase or an aminating oxidoreductase (FIG. 13, Step G). 6-Acetamidohexanamine is subsequently converted to HMDA by an amide hydrolase or an N-acetyltransferase (FIG. 13, Step H).

In one route, 6-acetamidohexanoate is phosphorylated by 6-acetamidohexanoate kinase (FIG. 13, Step E). The product, 6-AAHOP, is reduced to form 6-acetamidohexanal (FIG. 13, Step F), which is then converted to HMDA as described above.

In another route, 6-acetamidohexanoate is activated to 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA by a CoA transferase or CoA ligase (FIG. 13, Step I). The CoA derivative is then reduced to 6-acetamidohexanal by an aldehyde-forming CoA-dependent oxidoreductase (FIG. 13, Step J). 6-acetamidohexanal is then converted to HMDA as described above.

Alternately, 6-acetamidohexanoate is phosphorylated to 6-AAHOP (FIG. 13, Step E) and subsequently converted to 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA by an acyltransferase (FIG. 13, Step K). 6-Acetamidohexanoyl-CoA is then reduced to HMDA as described previously.

EXAMPLE XXI Enzyme Classification System for Production of 6-Aminocaproic acid and Hexamethylenediamine

This example describes the enzyme classification system for the exemplary pathways described in Examples XIX and XX for production of 6-aminocaproate or hexamethylenediamine

All transformations depicted in FIGS. 12 and 13 fall into the general categories of transformations shown in Table 9. Below is described a number of biochemically characterized genes in each category. Specifically listed are genes that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations in FIGS. 12-13 when properly cloned and expressed.

Table 9 shows the enzyme types useful to convert common central metabolic intermediates into 6-aminocaproate and hexamethylenediamine. The first three digits of each label correspond to the first three Enzyme Commission number digits which denote the general type of transformation independent of substrate specificity.

TABLE 9 LABEL FUNCTION 1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde) 1.2.1.c Oxidoreductase (2-ketoacid to acyl-CoA) 1.2.1.d Oxidoreductase (phosphonic acid to aldehyde) 1.3.1.a Oxidoreductase (alkene to alkane) 1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase (ketone or aldehyde to amino) 2.3.1.a Acyltransferase (transferring CoA to phospho) 2.3.1.c Acyltransferase (N-acetyltransferase) 2.3.1.d Acyltransferase (formate C-acyltransferase) 2.6.1.a Aminotransferase 2.7.2.a Phosphotransferase (carboxy acceptor) 2.8.3.a Coenzyme-A transferase 3.5.1.a Hydrolase (acting on linear amides) 4.1.1.a Carboxy-lyase 4.1.2.a Aldehyde-lyase 4.2.1.a Hydro-lyase 6.2.1.a Acid-thiol ligase

1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde). The transformations of 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA to 6-acetamidohexanal (FIG. 13, Step J) and 6-aminocaproyl-CoA to 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde (FIG. 13, Step N) are catalyzed by CoA-dependent oxidoreductase enzyme in the EC class 1.2.1. Adipyl-CoA is converted to adipate semialdehyde by adipyl-CoA oxidoreductase, an enzyme with similar functionality (FIG. 12, Step O). Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme that forms FIG. 12 precursor succinic semialdehyde from succinyl-CoA, is also a CoA-dependent oxidoreductase. Oxidoreductases in the EC class 1.2.1.- are capable of reducing an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde. Exemplary genes that encode such enzymes include the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Reiser and Somerville, Journal of Bacteriology 179:2969-2975 (1997)), the Acinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002)), and a CoA- and NADP— dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene in Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). SucD of P. gingivalis is another succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Takahashi et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:4704-4710 (2000)). The acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp, encoded by bphG, is yet another candidate as it has been demonstrated to oxidize and acylate acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde (Powlowski et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:377-385 (1993)). In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxidize the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al., J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 18:43-55 (1972); and Koo et al., Biotechnol Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism acr1 50086359 YP_047869.1 Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 1684886 AAC45217 Acinetobacter baylyi acr1 18857901 BAB85476.1 Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1 sucD 172046062 P38947.1 Clostridium kluyveri sucD 34540484 NP_904963.1 Porphyromonas gingivalis bphG 425213 BAA03892.1 Pseudomonas sp adhE 55818563 AAV66076.1 Leuconostoc mesenteroides

An additional enzyme that converts an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde is malonyl-CoA reductase which transforms malonyl-CoA to malonic semialdehyde. Malonyl-CoA reductase is a key enzyme in autotrophic carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle in thermoacidophilic archaeal bacteria (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007); and Thauer, R. K., Science. 318:1732-1733 (2007)). The enzyme utilizes NADPH as a cofactor and has been characterized in Metallosphaera and Sulfolobus sp (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); and Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by Msed 0709 in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); and Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007)). A gene encoding a malonyl-CoA reductase from Sulfolobus tokodaii was cloned and heterologously expressed in E. coli (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006)). This enzyme has also been shown to catalyze the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde (WIPO Patent Application WO/2007/141208 Kind Code: A2). Although the aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality of these enzymes is similar to the bifunctional dehydrogenase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus, there is little sequence similarity. Both malonyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates have high sequence similarity to aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme catalyzing the reduction and concurrent dephosphorylation of aspartyl-4-phosphate to aspartate semialdehyde. Additional gene candidates can be found by sequence homology to proteins in other organisms including Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and have been listed below. Yet another candidate for CoA-acylating aldehyde dehydrogenase is the ald gene from Clostridium beijerinckii (Toth et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 65:4973-4980 (1999)). This enzyme has been reported to reduce acetyl-CoA and butyryl-CoA to their corresponding aldehydes. This gene is very similar to eutE that encodes acetaldehyde dehydrogenase of Salmonella typhimurium and E. coli (Toth et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 65:4973-4980 (1999)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism Msed_0709 146303492 YP_001190808.1 Metallosphaera sedula mcr 15922498 NP_378167.1 Sulfolobus tokodaii asd-2 15898958 NP_343563.1 Sulfolobus solfataricus Saci_2370 70608071 YP_256941.1 Sulfolobus acidocaldarius Ald 49473535 AAT66436 Clostridium beijerinckii eutE 687645 AAA80209 Salmonella typhimurium eutE 2498347 P77445 Escherichia coli

1.2.1.c Oxidoreductase (2-ketoacid to acyl-CoA). Several transformations in FIG. 12 require conversion of a 2-ketoacid to an acyl-CoA (Steps L, P and Q) by an enzyme in the EC class 1.2.1. Such reactions are catalyzed by multi-enzyme complexes that catalyze a series of partial reactions which result in acylating oxidative decarboxylation of 2-keto-acids. Exemplary enzymes include 1) branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase, 2) alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and 3) the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex (PDHC). Each of the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes occupies key positions in intermediary metabolism, and enzyme activity is typically tightly regulated (Fries et al., Biochemistry 42:6996-7002 (2003)). The enzymes share a complex but common structure composed of multiple copies of three catalytic components: alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (E1), dihydrolipoamide acyltransferase (E2) and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3). The E3 component is shared among all 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes in an organism, while the E1 and E2 components are encoded by different genes. The enzyme components are present in numerous copies in the complex and utilize multiple cofactors to catalyze a directed sequence of reactions via substrate channeling. The overall size of these dehydrogenase complexes is very large, with molecular masses between 4 and 10 million Da (i.e. larger than a ribosome).

Activity of enzymes in the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase family is normally low or limited under anaerobic conditions in E. coli. Increased production of NADH (or NADPH) could lead to a redox-imbalance, and NADH itself serves as an inhibitor to enzyme function. Engineering efforts have increased the anaerobic activity of the E. coli pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (Kim et al., Appi. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008); and Zhou et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). For example, the inhibitory effect of NADH can be overcome by engineering an H322Y mutation in the E3 component (Kim et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008)). Structural studies of individual components and how they work together in complex provide insight into the catalytic mechanisms and architecture of enzymes in this family (Aevarsson et al., Nat. Struct. Biol. 6:785-792 (1999); and Zhou et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 98:14802-14807 (2001)). The substrate specificity of the dehydrogenase complexes varies in different organisms, but generally branched-chain keto-acid dehydrogenases have the broadest substrate range.

Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (AKGD) converts alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA and is the primary site of control of metabolic flux through the TCA cycle (Hansford, Curr. Top. Bioenerg. 10:217-278 (1980)). Encoded by genes sucA, sucB and lpd in E. coli, AKGD gene expression is downregulated under anaerobic conditions and during growth on glucose (Park et al., Mol. Microbiol. 15:473-482 (1995)). Although the substrate range of AKGD is narrow, structural studies of the catalytic core of the E2 component pinpoint specific residues responsible for substrate specificity (Knapp et al., J. Mol. Biol. 280:655-668 (1998)). The Bacillus subtilis AKGD, encoded by odhAB (E1 and E2) and pdhD (E3, shared domain), is regulated at the transcriptional level and is dependent on the carbon source and growth phase of the organism (Resnekov et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 234:285-296 (1992)). In yeast, the LPDJ gene encoding the E3 component is regulated at the transcriptional level by glucose (Roy and Dawes, J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:925-933 (1987)). The E1 component, encoded by KGDJ, is also regulated by glucose and activated by the products of HAP2 and HAP3 (Repetto and Tzagoloff, Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:2695-2705 (1989)). The AKGD enzyme complex, inhibited by products NADH and succinyl-CoA, is well-studied in mammalian systems, as impaired function of has been linked to several neurological diseases (Tretter and dam-Vizi, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci. 360:2335-2345 (2005)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism sucA 16128701 NP_415254.1 Escherichia coli sucB 16128702 NP_415255.1 Escherichia coli lpd 16128109 NP_414658.1 Escherichia coli odhA 51704265 P23129.2 Bacillus subtilis odhB 129041 P16263.1 Bacillus subtilis pdhD 118672 P21880.1 Bacillus subtilis KGD1 6322066 NP_012141.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae KGD2 6320352 NP_010432.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae LPD1 14318501 NP_116635.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex (BCKAD), also known as 2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase, participates in branched-chain amino acid degradation pathways, converting 2-keto acids derivatives of valine, leucine and isoleucine to their acyl-CoA derivatives and CO₂. The complex has been studied in many organisms including Bacillus subtilis (Wang et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 213:1091-1099 (1993)), Rattus norvegicus (Namba et al., J. Biol. Chem. 244:4437-4447 (1969)) and Pseudomonas putida (Sokatch et al., J. Bacteriol. 148:647-652 (1981)). In Bacillus subtilis the enzyme is encoded by genes pdhD (E3 component), bfmBB (E2 component), bfmBAA and bfmBAB (E1 component) (Wang et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 213:1091-1099 (1993)). In mammals, the complex is regulated by phosphorylation by specific phosphatases and protein kinases. The complex has been studied in rat hepatocites (Chicco et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:19427-19434 (1994)) and is encoded by genes Bckdha (E1 alpha), Bckdhb (E1 beta), Dbt (E2), and Dld (E3). The E1 and E3 components of the Pseudomonas putida BCKAD complex have been crystallized (Aevarsson et al., Nat. Struct. Biol. 6:785-792 (1999); and Mattevi et al., Science. 255:1544-1550 (1992)) and the enzyme complex has been studied (Sokatch et al., J. Bacteriol. 148:647-652 (1981)). Transcription of the P. putida BCKAD genes is activated by the gene product of bkdR (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)). In some organisms including Rattus norvegicus (Paxton et al., Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sinclair et al., Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 31:911-922 (1993)), this complex has been shown to have a broad substrate range that includes linear oxo-acids such as 2-oxobutanoate and alpha-ketoglutarate, in addition to the branched-chain amino acid precursors. The active site of the bovine BCKAD was engineered to favor alternate substrate acetyl-CoA (Meng and Chuang, Biochemistry. 33:12879-12885 (1994)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism bfmBB 16079459 NP_390283.1 Bacillus subtilis bfmBAA 16079461 NP_390285.1 Bacillus subtilis bfmBAB 16079460 NP_390284.1 Bacillus subtilis pdhD 118672 P21880.1 Bacillus subtilis lpdV 118677 P09063.1 Pseudomonas putida bkdB 129044 P09062.1 Pseudomonas putida bkdA1 26991090 NP_746515.1 Pseudomonas putida bkdA2 26991091 NP_746516.1 Pseudomonas putida Bckdha 77736548 NP_036914.1 Rattus norvegicus Bckdhb 158749538 NP_062140.1 Rattus norvegicus Dbt 158749632 NP_445764.1 Rattus norvegicus Dld 40786469 NP_955417.1 Rattus norvegicus

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, catalyzing the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, has also been extensively studied. In the E. coli enzyme, specific residues in the E1 component are responsible for substrate specificity (Bisswanger, J Biol Chem. 256:815-822 (1981); Bremer, Eur. J Biochem. 8:535-540 (1969); and Gong et al., J Biol Chem. 275:13645-13653 (2000)). As mentioned previously, enzyme engineering efforts have improved the E. coli PDH enzyme activity under anaerobic conditions (Kim et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008)); and Zhou et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). In contrast to the E. coli PDH, the B. subtilis complex is active and required for growth under anaerobic conditions (Nakano et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:6749-6755 (1997)). The Klebsiella pneumoniae PDH, characterized during growth on glycerol, is also active under anaerobic conditions (Menzel et al., J. Biotechnol. 56:135-142 (1997)). Crystal structures of the enzyme complex from bovine kidney (Zhou et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 98:14802-14807 (2001)) and the E2 catalytic domain from Azotobacter vinelandii are available (Mattevi et al., Science. 255:1544-1550 (1992)). Some mammalian PDH enzymes complexes can react on alternate substrates such as 2-oxobutanoate, although comparative kinetics of Rattus norvegicus PDH and BCKAD indicate that BCKAD has higher activity on 2-oxobutanoate as a substrate (Paxton et al., Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism aceE 16128107 NP_414656.1 Escherichia coli aceF 16128108 NP_414657.1 Escherichia coli lpd 16128109 NP_414658.1 Escherichia coli pdhA 3123238 P21881.1 Bacillus subtilis pdhB 129068 P21882.1 Bacillus subtilis pdhC 129054 P21883.2 Bacillus subtilis pdhD 118672 P21880.1 Bacillus subtilis aceE 152968699 YP_001333808.1 Klebsiella pneumonia aceF 152968700 YP_001333809.1 Klebsiella pneumonia lpdA 152968701 YP_001333810.1 Klebsiella pneumonia Pdha1 124430510 NP_001004072.2 Rattus norvegicus Pdha2 16758900 NP_446446.1 Rattus norvegicus Dlat 78365255 NP_112287.1 Rattus norvegicus Dld 40786469 NP_955417.1 Rattus norvegicus

As an alternative to the large multienzyme 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes described above, some anaerobic organisms utilize enzymes in the 2-ketoacid oxidoreductase family (OFOR) to catalyze acylating oxidative decarboxylation of 2-keto-acids. Unlike the dehydrogenase complexes, these enzymes contain iron-sulfur clusters, utilize different cofactors, and use ferredoxin or flavodoxin as electron acceptors in lieu of NAD(P)H. While most enzymes in this family are specific to pyruvate as a substrate (POR) some 2-keto-acid:ferredoxin oxidoreductases have been shown to accept a broad range of 2-ketoacids as substrates including alpha-ketoglutarate and 2-oxobutanoate (Fukuda and Wakagi, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002); and Zhang et al., J. Biochem. 120:587-599 (1996)). One such enzyme is the OFOR from the thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus tokodaii 7, which contains an alpha and beta subunit encoded by gene ST2300 (Fukuda and Wakagi, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002); and Zhang et al., J. Biochem. 120:587-599 (1996)). A plasmid-based expression system has been developed for efficiently expressing this protein in E. coli (Fukuda et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:5639-5646 (2001)) and residues involved in substrate specificity were determined (Fukuda and Wakagi, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002)). Two OFORs from Aeropyrum pernix str. K1 have also been recently cloned into E. coli, characterized, and found to react with a broad range of 2-oxoacids (Nishizawa et al., FEBS Lett. 579:2319-2322 (2005)). The gene sequences of these OFOR candidates are available, although they do not have GenBank identifiers assigned to date. There is bioinformatic evidence that similar enzymes are present in all archaea, some anaerobic bacteria and amitochondrial eukarya (Fukuda and Wakagi, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002)). This class of enzyme is also interesting from an energetic standpoint, as reduced ferredoxin could be used to generate NADH by ferredoxin-NAD reductase (Petitdemange et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 421:334-337 (1976)). Also, since most of the enzymes are designed to operate under anaerobic conditions, less enzyme engineering may be required relative to enzymes in the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex family for activity in an anaerobic environment.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism ST2300 15922633 NP_378302.1 Sulfolobus tokodaii 7

1.2.1.d Oxidoreductase (phosphonic acid to aldehyde). The reduction of a phosphonic acid to its corresponding aldehyde is catalyzed by an oxidoreductase in the EC class 1.2.1. Steps B and F in FIG. 13 require such an enzyme for the reduction of 6-AHOP and 6-AAHOP to their corresponding aldehydes. These reactions are not catalyzed by known enzymes, but a similar reaction is catalyzed by aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (ASD, EC 1.2.1.11): the NADPH-dependent reduction of 4-aspartyl phosphate to aspartate-4-semialdehyde. ASD participates in amino acid biosynthesis and recently has been studied as an antimicrobial target (Hadfield et al., Biochemistry 40:14475-14483 (2001)). The E. coli ASD structure has been solved (Hadfield et al., J Mol. Biol. 289:991-1002 (1999)) and the enzyme has been shown to accept the alternate substrate beta-3-methylaspartyl phosphate (Shames et al., J. Biol. Chem. 259:15331-15339 (1984)). The Haemophilus influenzae enzyme has been the subject of enzyme engineering studies to alter substrate binding affinities at the active site (Blanco et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 60:1388-1395 (2004); and Blanco et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 60:1808-1815 (2004)). Other ASD candidates are found in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Shafiani et al., J Appl Microbiol 98:832-838 (2005)), Methanococcus jannaschii (Faehnle et al., J Mol. Biol. 353:1055-1068 (2005)), and the infectious microorganisms Vibrio cholera and Heliobacter pylori (Moore et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 25:189-194 (2002)). A related enzyme candidate is acetylglutamylphosphate reductase (EC 1.2.1.38), an enzyme that naturally reduces acetylglutamylphosphate to acetylglutamate-5-semialdehyde, found in S. cerevisiae (Pauwels et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:1014-1024 (2003)), B. subtilis (O'Reilly and Devine, Microbiology 140 (Pt 5):1023-1025 (1994)) and other organisms.

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism Asd 16131307 NP_417891.1 Escherichia coli Asd 68249223 YP_248335.1 Haemophilus influenzae Asd 1899206 AAB49996 Mycobacterium tuberculosis VC2036 15642038 NP_231670 Vibrio cholera Asd 210135348 YP_002301787.1 Heliobacter pylori ARG5,6 6320913 NP_010992.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae argC 16078184 NP_389001.1 Bacillus subtilis

1.3.1.a Oxidoreductase (alkene to alkane). Several transformations fall into the category of oxidoreductases that reduce an alkene to an alkane (EC 1.3.1.-). For example, Steps C, G, K and N in FIG. 12, catalyzed by OHED reductase, 6-OHE reductase, 2-AHE reductase and 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA reductase, respectively, fall into this category. Enone reductase, alkenal reductase, and enoate reductase enzymes are suitable enzyme candidates for catalyzing the transformations of Steps C, G and K. Enoyl-CoA reductase enzymes catalyze the conversion of 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA (Step N).

Enzymes with enone reductase activity have been identified in prokaryotes, eukaryotes and plants (Shimoda et al., Bulletin of the chemical Society of Japan 77:2269-2 (2004); and Wanner and Tressl, Eur. J. Biochem. 255:271-278 (1998)). Two enone reductases from the cytosolic fraction of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were purified and characterized, and found to accept a variety of alkenals (similar to 6-OHE) and enoyl ketones (similar to OHED) as substrates (Wanner and Tressl, Eur. J. Biochem. 255:271-278 (1998)). Genes encoding these enzymes have not been identified to date. Cell extracts of cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC7942 reduced a variety enone substrates to their corresponding alkyl ketones (Shimoda et al., Bulletin of the chemical Society of Japan 77:2269-2 (2004)). Genes have not been associated with this activity in this organism. Enone reductases in other organisms can also catalyze this transformation.

A recombinant NADPH-dependent enone reductase from Nicotiana tabacum, encoded by NtRed1, was functionally expressed and characterized in E. coli (Matsushima et al., Bioorganic Chemistry 36:23-28 (2008)). This reductase was functional on the exocyclic enoyl ketone pulegone (Matsushima et al., Bioorganic Chemistry 36:23-28 (2008)). An enzyme candidate in S. cerevisiae at the locus YML131W, bears 30% identity to NtRed1 (evalue=1e-26). The amino acid sequence of NtRed1 shares significant homology with 2-alkenal reductase from Arabidopsis thaliana, zeta-crystallin homolog from A. thaliana, pulegone reductase from Menthe piperita and phenylpropenal alkene reductase from Pinus taeda. These enzymes are known to catalyze the reduction of alkenes of α,β-unsaturated ketones and aldehydes.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism NtRed1 6692816 BAA89423 Nicotiana tabacum YML131W 45269874 AAS56318.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae AtDBR1 15237888 NP-197199 Arabidopsis thaliana P2 886430 CAA89262 Arabidopsis thaliana PulR 34559418 AAQ75423 Menthe piperita PtPPDBR 110816011 ABG91753 Pinus taeda

2-Alkenal reductase catalyzes the reduction of α,β-unsaturated double bonds of aldehydes and ketones. A barley alkenal hydrogenase ALH1 was identified with activity for a range of α,β-unsaturated ketones and aldehydes including trans-2-nonenal, 2-hexenal, traumatin and 1-octene-3-one (Hambraeus and Nyberg, J Agric. Food Chem. 53:8714-8721 (2005)). The Hordeum vulgare ALH1 cDNA was cloned expressed in E. coli (Hambraeus and Nyberg, J. Agric. Food Chem. 53:8714-8721 (2005)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism ALH1 62765876 AAX99161 Hordeum vulgare ALH1 195652571 ACG45753 Zea mays

2-Enoate reductase enzymes are known to catalyze the NAD(P)H-dependent reduction of a wide variety of a, O-unsaturated carboxylic acids and aldehydes (Rohdich et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). In the recently published genome sequence of C. kluyveri, 9 coding sequences for enoate reductases were reported, out of which one has been characterized (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 105:2128-2133 (2008)). The enr genes from both C. tyrobutyricum and M. thermoaceticum have been cloned and sequenced and show 59% identity to each other. The former gene is also found to have approximately 75% similarity to the characterized gene in C. kluyveri (Giesel and Simon, Arch. Microbiol. 135:51-57 (1983)). It has been reported based on these sequence results that enr is very similar to the dienoyl CoA reductase in E. coli (fadH) (Rohdich et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). The C. thermoaceticum enr gene has also been expressed in a catalytically active form in E. coli (Rohdich et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism enr 169405742 ACA54153.1 Clostridium botulinum A3 str enr 2765041 CAA71086.1 Clostridium tyrobutyricum enr 3402834 CAA76083.1 Clostridium kluyveri enr 83590886 YP_430895.1 Moorella thermoacetica fadH 16130976 NP_417552.1 Escherichia coli

Another candidate enoate reductase is 3-oxoadipate oxidoreductase (maleylacetate reductase), an enzyme catalyzing the reduction of 2-maleylacetate (4-oxohex-2-enedioate) to 3-oxoadipate. The enzyme activity was identified and characterized in Pseudomonas sp. strain B13 (Kaschabek and Reineke, J. Bacteriol. 177:320-325 (1995); and Kaschabek. and Reineke, J. Bacteriol. 175:6075-6081 (1993)), and the coding gene was cloned and sequenced (Kasberg et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:3801-3803 (1997)). Candidate genes for 3-oxoadipate oxidoreductase include cicE gene from Pseudomonas sp. strain B13 (Kasberg et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:3801-3803 (1997)), macA gene from Rhodococcus opacus (Seibert et al., J. Bacteriol. 180:3503-3508 (1998)), and macA gene from Ralstonia eutropha (also known as Cupriavidus necator) (Seibert et al., Microbiology 150:463-472 (2004)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism clcE 3913241 O30847.1 Pseudomonas sp. strain B13 macA 7387876 O84992.1 Rhodococcus opacus macA 5916089 AAD55886 Cupriavidus necator

Enoyl-CoA reductase enzymes are suitable enzymes for catalyzing the reduction of 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA to adipyl-CoA (FIG. 12, Step N). One exemplary enoyl-CoA reductase is the gene product of bcd from C. acetobutylicum (Atsumi et al., Metab Eng 10:305-311 (2008); and Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)), which naturally catalyzes the reduction of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA. Activity of this enzyme can be enhanced by expressing bcd in conjunction with expression of the C. acetobutylicum etfAB genes, which encode an electron transfer flavoprotein. An additional candidate for the enoyl-CoA reductase step is the mitochondrial enoyl-CoA reductase from E. gracilis (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). A construct derived from this sequence following the removal of its mitochondrial targeting leader sequence was cloned in E. coli resulting in an active enzyme (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). This approach is well known to those skilled in the art of expressing eukaryotic genes, particularly those with leader sequences that may target the gene product to a specific intracellular compartment, in prokaryotic organisms. A close homolog of this gene, TDE0597, from the prokaryote Treponema denticola represents a third enoyl-CoA reductase which has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Tucci and Martin, Febs Letters 581:1561-1566 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism bcd 15895968 NP_349317.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfA 15895966 NP_349315.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfB 15895967 NP_349316.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum TER 62287512 Q5EU90.1 Euglena gracilis TDE0597 42526113 NP_971211.1 Treponema denticola

Additional enoyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates are found in organisms that degrade aromatic compounds. Rhodopseudomonas palustris, a model organism for benzoate degradation, has the enzymatic capability to degrade pimelate via beta-oxidation of pimeloyl-CoA. Adjacent genes in the pim operon, pimC and pimD, bear sequence homology to C. acetobutylicum bcd and are predicted to encode a flavin-containing pimeloyl-CoA dehydrogenase (Harrison and Harwood, Microbiology 151:727-736 (2005)). The genome of nitrogen-fixing soybean symbiont Bradyrhizobium japonicum also contains a pim operon composed of genes with high sequence similarity to pimC and pimD of R. palustris (Harrison and Harwood, Microbiology 151:727-736 (2005)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pimC 39650632 CAE29155 Rhodopseudomonas palustris pimD 39650631 CAE29154 Rhodopseudomonas palustris pimC 27356102 BAC53083 Bradyrhizobium japonicum pimD 27356101 BAC53082 Bradyrhizobium japonicum

An additional candidate is 2-methyl-branched chain enoyl-CoA reductase (EC 1.3.1.52), an enzyme catalyzing the reduction of sterically hindered trans-enoyl-CoA substrates. This enzyme participates in branched-chain fatty acid synthesis in the nematode Ascarius suum and is capable of reducing a variety of linear and branched chain substrates including 2-methylbutanoyl-CoA, 2-methylpentanoyl-CoA, octanoyl-CoA and pentanoyl-CoA (Duran et al., J Biol. Chem. 268:22391-22396 (1993)). Two isoforms of the enzyme, encoded by genes acad 1 and acad, have been characterized.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism acad1 2407655 AAC48316.1 Ascarius suum acad 347404 AAA16096.1 Ascarius suum

1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase (ketone or aldehyde to amino) Oxidoreductases in the EC class 1.4.1 that convert an aldehyde or ketone to its corresponding amine group catalyze several biosynthetic steps in the disclosed pathways. In FIG. 12, the conversions of OHED to 2-AHE (Step J), 2-OHD to 2-AHD (Step H) and adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate (Step E) are catalyzed by OHED aminating oxidoreductase, 2-OHD aminating oxidoreductase and adipate semialdehyde aminating oxidoreductase. In FIG. 13, conversion of 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde to HMDA (Step H) and 6-acetamidohexanal to 6-acetamidohexanamine (Step G), are also catalyzed by aminating oxidoreductases.

Most aminating oxidoreductases catalyze the reversible oxidative deamination of alpha-amino acids with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor, and the reactions are typically reversible. Exemplary enzymes include glutamate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by gdhA, leucine dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by ldh, and aspartate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by nadX. The gdhA gene product from Escherichia coli (Korber et al., J Mol. Biol. 234:1270-1273 (1993); and McPherson et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 11:5257-5266 (1983)), gdh from Thermotoga maritime (Kort et al., Extremophiles. 1:52-60 (1997); Lebbink et al., J Mol. Biol. 280:287-296 (1998); and Lebbink et al., J Mol. Biol. 289:357-369 (1999)), and gdhA1 from Halobacterium salinarum (Ingoldsby et al., Gene 349:237-244 (2005)) catalyze the reversible interconversion of glutamate to 2-oxoglutarate and ammonia, while favoring NADP(H), NAD(H), or both, respectively. The ldh gene of Bacillus cereus encodes the LeuDH protein that has a wide of range of substrates including leucine, isoleucine, valine, and 2-aminobutanoate (Ansorge and Kula, Biotechnol Bioeng 68:557-562 (2000); and Stoyan et al., J Biotechnol. 54:77-80 (1997)). The nadX gene from Thermotoga maritime encoding for the aspartate dehydrogenase is involved in the biosynthesis of NAD (Yang et al., J Biol. Chem. 278:8804-8808 (2003)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gdhA 118547 P00370 Escherichia coli gdh 6226595 P96110.4 Thermotoga maritima gdhA1 15789827 NP_279651.1 Halobacterium salinarum ldh 61222614 P0A393 Bacillus cereus nadX 15644391 NP_229443.1 Thermotoga maritima

Lysine 6-dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by lysDH, catalyzes the oxidative deamination of the 6-amino group of L-lysine to form 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde, which in turn non-enzymatically cyclizes to form Δ¹-piperideine-6-carboxylate (Misono and Nagasaki, J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)). Exemplary enzymes can be found in Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Heydari et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 70:937-942 (2004)), Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Hashimoto et al., J Biochem. 106:76-80 (1989); and Misono and Nagasaki, J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)), and Achromobacter denitrificans (Ruldeekulthamrong et al., BMB. Rep. 41:790-795 (2008)). Such enzymes are particularly good candidates for converting adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminocaproate given the structural similarity between adipate semialdehyde and 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism lysDH 13429872 BAB39707 Geobacillus stearothermophilus lysDH 15888285 NP_353966 Agrobacterium tumefaciens lysDH 74026644 AAZ94428 Achromobacter denitrificans

2.3.1.a Acyltransferase (transferring CoA to phospho). Acyltransferases that exchange a CoA moiety for a phosphate are in the EC class 2.3.1. Transformations in this category include the conversions of 6-AAHOP to 6-acetamidohexanoyl-CoA (FIG. 13, Step K) and 6-AHOP to 6-aminocaproyl-CoA (FIG. 13, Step L). Exemplary phosphate-transferring acyltransferases include phosphotransacetylase (EC 2.3.1.8), encoded by pta, and phosphotransbutyrylase (EC 2.3.1.19), encoded by ptb. The pta gene from E. coli encodes an enzyme that reversibly converts acetyl-CoA into acetyl-phosphate (Suzuki, T., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 191:559-569 (1969)). This enzyme can also utilize propionyl-CoA as a substrate, forming propionate in the process (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)). Similarly, the ptb gene from C. acetobutylicum encodes phosphate transbutyrylase, an enzyme that reversibly converts butyryl-CoA into butyryl-phosphate (Walter et al., Gene 134:107-111 (1993); and Wiesenborn et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 55:317-322 (1989)). Additional ptb genes are found in butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50 (Louis et al., J. Bacteriol. 186:2099-2106 (2004)) and Bacillus megaterium (Vazquez et al., Curr. Microbiol. 42:345-349 (2001)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism Pta 16130232 NP_416800.1 Escherichia coli Ptb 15896327 NP_349676 Clostridium acetobutylicum Ptb 38425288 AAR19757.1 butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50 Ptb 10046659 CAC07932.1 Bacillus megaterium

2.3.1.c Acyltransferase (N-acetyltransferase). N-Acetyltransferases transfer an acetyl group to an amine, forming an N-acetyl group. N-Acetylation serves diverse functions in biological systems including transcriptional regulation, nuclear import, chromosome assembly and nucleosome remodeling (Kouzarides, EMBO J. 19:1176-1179 (2000)). N-Acetylation of metabolic intermediates of arginine biosynthetic pathways serves both to protect reactive intermediates from spontaneous cyclization and also to sequester pathway intermediates from competing pathways (Caldovic and Tuchman, Biochem. J372:279-290 (2003)). Acetylation of 6-ACA (FIG. 13, step D) serves a similar role in the proposed HMDA biosynthesis route of FIG. 13, protecting reactive intermediates from spontaneous cyclization.

One candidate enzyme for acetylating 6-ACA is lysine N-acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.32), an enzyme which selectively transfers the acetyl moiety from acetyl phosphate to the terminal amino group of L-lysine, beta-L-lysine or L-ornithine. Although this enzyme is not known to acetylate 6-ACA, this substrate is structurally similar to the natural substrate. Lysine N-acetyltransferase has been characterized in Bos taurus (Paik. and Kim, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 108:221-229, 1964) and Methanosarcina mazei (Pfluger et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 69:6047-6055 (2003)). Methanogenic archaea M. maripaludis, M. acetivorans, M. barkeri and M. jannaschii are also predicted to encode enzymes with this functionality (Pfluger et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 69:6047-6055 (2003)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism ablB 21227037 NP_632959.1 Methanosarcina mazei yodP 44921183 CAF30418 Methanococcus maripaludis MA3978 20092772 NP_618847.1 Methanosarcina acetivorans MJ0635 15668816 NP_247619.1 Methanocaldococcus jannaschii Mbar_A0671 73668215 YP_304230.1 Methanosarcina barkeri

Alternately, 6-ACA acetylation can be catalyzed by an enzyme in the GNAT family of N-acetyltransferases. Such enzymes transfer an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to a primary amine. The enzyme spermidine N-acetyltransferase (SSAT), also known as diamine N-acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.57), is capable of acetylating a variety of small molecule substrates. Purified enzymes from Ascaris suum and Onchocerca volvulus exhibit a broad substrate range that includes HMDA (Davids et al., Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 64:341-344 (1994); and Wittich and Walter, Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 38:13-17 (1990)), but the associated genes have not been identified to date. Other enzymes with this functionality are found in Bacillus subtilis (Forouhar et al., J Biol. Chem. 280:40328-40336 (2005)) and Homo sapiens (Casero and Pegg, FASEB J 7:653-661 (1993)). A closely related enzyme is thialysine N-acetyltransferase in C. elegans, an enzyme that accepts a range of substrates including lysine, ornithine, thialysine and others (bo-Dalo et al., Biochem. J384:129-137 (2004)) Amino acid residues involved in substrate binding were identified in the thialysine N-acetyltransferase from Leishmania major (Luersen, K., FEBS Lett. 579:5347-5352 (2005)). An additional candidate is the diaminobutyrate acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.178), an enzyme participating in ectoine biosynthesis in Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum (Reshetnikov et al., Arch. Microbiol. 184:286-297 (2006)) C. salexigens (formerly Halomonas elongata) (Canovas et al., Syst. Appl Microbiol 21:487-497 (1998)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism paiA 16080268 NP_391095.1 Bacillus subtilis SSAT1 114322 P21673 Homo sapiens D2023.4 17559148 NP_505978.1 Caenorhabditis elegans LmjF36.2750 68129928 CAJ09234.1 Leishmania major ectA 68366269 AAY96770.1 Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum 20Z ectA 6685422 Q9ZEU8.1 Chromohalobacter salexigens

An additional enzyme candidate for acetylating 6-ACA (FIG. 13, Step D) and de-acetylating 6-acetamidehexanamine (FIG. 13, Step H) is ornithine acetyltransferase (OAT, EC 2.3.1.35 and EC 2.3.1.1), a bifunctional enzyme which catalyzes two steps of arginine biosynthesis (FIG. 14A). The first step of arginine biosynthesis (FIG. 14A, step I) is the N-acetylation of glutamate, catalyzed by OAT with acetyl-CoA as an acetyl donor (O'Reilly and Devine, Microbiology 140 (Pt 5):1023-1025 (1994)). OAT also catalyzes the fifth step of arginine biosynthesis (FIG. 14A, step 2), in which an N-acetyl group is transferred from N-acetyl-L-ornithine to L-glutamate, the first metabolite in the arginine biosynthesis pathway. This transformation serves to recycle the acetyl group and regenerate N-acetylglutamate, conserving energy and thereby making the linear pathway a cyclic route. A similar strategy can be employed in HMDA biosynthesis from 6-aminocaproate, with a single enzyme acetylating 6-aminocaproate and de-acetylating 6-acetamidohexanamine to form HMDA (FIG. 14B). Exemplary OAT enzymes are encoded by argJ in Bacillus subtilis (O'Reilly and Devine, Microbiology 140 (Pt 5):1023-1025 (1994); and Sakanyan et al., Journal of General Microbiology 138:125-130 (1992)) and ECM40 in S. cerevisiae (Abadjieva et al., J Biol. Chem. 275:11361-11367 (2000); and Liu et al., Eur. J Biochem. 228:291-296 (1995)). Crystal structures of the enzymes from yeast (Maes et al., Acta Crystallogr. Sect. F. Struct. Biol. Cryst. Commun. 62:1294-1297 (2006)) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Sankaranarayanan et al., Acta Crystallogr. Sect. F. Struct. Biol. Cryst. Commun. 65:173-176 (2009)) are available. Although encoded by a single open reading frame, OAT enzymes have distinct alpha and beta subunit peptides (Liu et al., Eur. J Biochem. 228:291-296 (1995)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism argJ 16078185 NP_389002.1 Bacillus subtilis ECM40 (ARG7) 6323707 NP_013778.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rv1653 15608791 NP_216169.1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis

2.3.1.d Acyltransferase (formate C-acyltransferase). The acylation of ketoacids HODH, OHED and 2-OHD to their corresponding CoA derivatives (FIG. 12, Steps L, P and Q) and concurrent release of formate, is catalyzed by formate C-acyltransferase enzymes in the EC class 2.3.1. Enzymes in this class include pyruvate formate-lyase and ketoacid formate-lyase. Pyruvate formate-lyase (PFL, EC 2.3.1.54), encoded by pflB in E. coli, converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA and formate. The active site of PFL contains a catalytically essential glycyl radical that is posttranslationally activated under anaerobic conditions by PFL-activating enzyme (PFL-AE, EC 1.97.1.4) encoded by pflA (Knappe et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 81:1332-1335 (1984); and Wong et al., Biochemistry 32:14102-14110 (1993)). A pyruvate formate-lyase from Archaeglubus fulgidus encoded by pflD has been cloned, expressed in E. coli and characterized (Lehtio, L. and A. Goldman, Protein Eng Des Sel 17:545-552 (2004)). The crystal structures of the A. fulgidus and E. coli enzymes have been resolved (Lehtio et al., J Mol. Biol. 357:221-235 (2006)). Additional PFL and PFL-AE candidates are found in Clostridium pasteurianum (Weidner and Sawers, J. Bacteriol. 178:2440-2444 (1996)) and the eukaryotic alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Cary et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1576-1583 (1990)). Keto-acid formate-lyase (EC 2.3.1.-), also known as 2-ketobutyrate formate-lyase (KFL) and pyruvate formate-lyase 4, is the gene product of tdcE in E. coli. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of 2-ketobutyrate to propionyl-CoA and formate during anaerobic threonine degradation, and can also substitute for pyruvate formate-lyase in anaerobic catabolism (Simanshu et al., J Biosci. 32:1195-1206 (2007)). The enzyme is oxygen-sensitive and, like PflB, requires post-translational modification by PFL-AE to activate a glycyl radical in the active site (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism pflB 16128870 NP_415423.1 Escherichia coli pflA 16128869 NP_415422.1 Escherichia coli tdcE 48994926 AAT48170.1 Escherichia coli pflD 11499044 NP_070278.1 Archaeglubus fulgidus pfl 2500058 Q46266.1 Clostridium pasteurianum act 1072362 CAA63749.1 Clostridium pasteurianum pfl1 159462978 XP_001689719.1 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii pflA1 159485246 XP_001700657.1 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

2.6.1.a Aminotransferase. Steps E, H and J of FIG. 12 and Steps C and G of FIG. 13 require conversion of an aldehyde or ketone to an amino group. This transformation can be accomplished by an aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.-). The conversion of an aldehyde to a terminal amine (FIG. 12, Step E; FIG. 13, Steps C and G) can be catalyzed by gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase (GABA transaminase). One E. coli GABA transaminase is encoded by gabT and transfers an amino group from glutamate to the terminal aldehyde of succinic semialdehyde (Bartsch et al., J. Bacteriol. 172:7035-7042 (1990)). This enzyme exhibits a broad substrate range (Liu et al., Biochemistry 43:10896-10905 (2004)). The gene product of puuE encodes the other 4-aminobutyrate transaminase in E. coli (Kurihara et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4602-4608 (2005)). GABA transaminases in Mus musculus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Sus scrofa have been shown to react with 6-aminocaproic acid (Cooper, Methods Enzymol. 113:80-82 (1985); and Scott and Jakoby, J Biol. Chem. 234:932-936 (1959)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gabT 16130576 NP_417148.1 Escherichia coli puuE 16129263 NP_415818.1 Escherichia coli abat 37202121 NP_766549.2 Mus musculus gabT 70733692 YP_257332.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens abat 47523600 NP_999428.1 Sus scrofa

Additional enzyme candidates include putrescine aminotransferases or other diamine aminotransferases. Such enzymes are particularly well suited for carrying out the conversion of 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde to HMDA. The E. coli putrescine aminotransferase is encoded by the ygjG gene and the purified enzyme also was able to transaminate cadaverine and spermidine (Samsonova et al., BMC. Microbiol. 3:2 (2003)). In addition, activity of this enzyme on 1,7-diaminoheptane and with amino acceptors other than 2-oxoglutarate (e.g., pyruvate, 2-oxobutanoate) has been reported (Kim, J Biol. Chem. 239:783-786 (1964); and Samsonova et al., BMC. Microbiol. 3:2 (2003)). A putrescine aminotransferase with higher activity with pyruvate as the amino acceptor than alpha-ketoglutarate is the spuC gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Lu et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:3765-3773 (2002)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism ygjG 145698310 NP_417544 Escherichia coli spuC 9946143 AAG03688 Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Additional candidate enzymes include beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferases which produce malonic semialdehyde from beta-alanine (WO08027742). The gene product of SkPYD4 in Saccharomyces kluyveri was shown to preferentially use beta-alanine as the amino group donor (Andersen and Hansen, Gene 124:105-109 (1993)). SkUGA1 encodes a homologue of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GABA aminotransferase, UGAJ (Ramos et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 149:401-404 (1985)), whereas SkPYD4 encodes an enzyme involved in both β-alanine and GABA transamination (Andersen and Hansen, Gene 124:105-109 (1993)). 3-Amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase catalyzes the transformation from methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. The enzyme has been characterized in Rattus norvegicus and Sus scrofa and is encoded by Abat 1968 (Kakimoto et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 156:374-380 (1968); and Tamaki et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:376-389 (2000)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism SkyPYD4 98626772 ABF58893.1 Saccharomyces kluyveri SkUGA1 98626792 ABF58894.1 Saccharomyces kluyveri UGA1 6321456 NP_011533.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Abat 122065191 P50554.3 Rattus norvegicus Abat 120968 P80147.2 Sus scrofa

Steps J and H of FIG. 12 are catalyzed by aminotransferases that transform amino acids into oxo-acids. In Step J, OHED is transaminated to form 2-AHE by OHED aminotransferase. The transamination of 2-OHD to 2-AHD by 2-OHD aminotransferase (Step H) is a similar reaction. An exemplary enzyme candidate for catalyzing these reactions is aspartate aminotransferase, an enzyme that naturally transfers an oxo group from oxaloacetate to glutamate, forming alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Aspartate is similar in structure to OHED and 2-AHD. Aspartate aminotransferase activity is catalyzed by, for example, the gene products of aspC from Escherichia coli (Yagi et al., FEBS Lett. 100:81-84, (1979); and Yagi et al., Methods Enzymol. 113:83-89 (1985)), AAT2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yagi et al., J. Biochem. 92:35-43 (1982)) and ASPS from Arabidopsis thaliana (de la Torre et al., Plant J 46:414-425 (2006); Kwok and Hanson, J Exp. Bot. 55:595-604 (2004); and Wilkie and Warren, Protein Expr. Purif. 12:381-389 (1998)). The enzyme from Rattus norvegicus has been shown to transaminate alternate substrates such as 2-aminohexanedioic acid and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (Recasens et al., Biochemistry 19:4583-4589 (1980)) Aminotransferases that work on other amino-acid substrates can catalyze this transformation. Valine aminotransferase catalyzes the conversion of valine and pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate and alanine The E. coli gene, avtA, encodes one such enzyme (Whalen and Berg, C. J. Bacteriol. 150:739-746 (1982)). This gene product also catalyzes the transamination of α-ketobutyrate to generate α-aminobutyrate, although the amine donor in this reaction has not been identified (Whalen and Berg, J. Bacteriol. 158:571-574 (1984)). The gene product of the E. coli serC catalyzes two reactions, phosphoserine aminotransferase and phosphohydroxythreonine aminotransferase (Lam and Winkler, J. Bacteriol. 172:6518-6528 (1990)), and activity on non-phosphorylated substrates could not be detected (Drewke et al., FEBS. Lett. 390:179-182 (1996)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism aspC 16128895 NP_415448.1 Escherichia coli AAT2 1703040 P23542.3 Saccharomyces cerevisiae ASP5 20532373 P46248.2 Arabidopsis thaliana Got2 112987 P00507 Rattus norvegicus avtA 49176374 YP_026231.1 Escherichia coli serC 16128874 NP_415427.1 Escherichia coli

2.7.2.a Phosphotransferase (carboxy acceptor). Phosphotransferase enzymes in the EC class 2.7.2 transform carboxylic acids to phosphonic acids with concurrent hydrolysis of one ATP. Steps A and E in FIG. 13 require a phosphotransferase to activate the carboxyl groups of 6-ACA (Step A) and 6-acetamidohexanoate (Step E) to their corresponding phosphonic acids. Butyrate kinase carries out the reversible conversion of butyryl-phosphate to butyrate during acidogenesis in C. acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1576-1583 (1990)). This enzyme is encoded by either of the two buk gene products (Huang et al., J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol 2:33-38 (2000)). Related enzyme isobutyrate kinase from Thermotoga maritima has also been expressed in E. coli and crystallized (Diao et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 59:1100-1102 (2003); and Diao and Hasson, J. Bacteriol. 191:2521-2529 (2009)). Aspartokinase catalyzes the ATP-dependent phosphorylation of aspartate and participates in the synthesis of several amino acids. The aspartokinase III enzyme in E. coli, encoded by lysC, has a broad substrate range and the catalytic residues involved in substrate specificity have been elucidated (Keng and Viola, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 335:73-81 (1996)). Two additional kinases in E. coli are also good candidates: acetate kinase and gamma-glutamyl kinase. The E. coli acetate kinase, encoded by ackA (Skarstedt and Silverstein, J. Biol. Chem. 251:6775-6783 (1976)), phosphorylates propionate in addition to acetate (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)). The E. coli gamma-glutamyl kinase, encoded by proB (Smith et al., J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984)), phosphorylates the gamma carbonic acid group of glutamate.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism buk1 15896326 NP_349675 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk2 20137415 Q97II1 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk2 6685256 Q9X278.1 Thermotoga maritima lysC 16131850 NP_418448.1 Escherichia coli ackA 16130231 NP_416799.1 Escherichia coli proB 16128228 NP_414777.1 Escherichia coli

Acetylglutamate kinase phosphorylates acetylated glutamate during arginine biosynthesis and is a good candidate for phosphorylating 6-acetamidohexanoate (FIG. 13, Step E). This enzyme is not known to accept alternate substrates; however, several residues of the E. coli enzyme involved in substrate binding and phosphorylation have been elucidated by site-directed mutagenesis (Marco-Martin et al., J Mol. Biol. 334:459-476 (2003); and Ramon-Maiques et al., Structure. 10:329-342 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by argB in Bacillus subtilis and E. coli (Parsot et al., Gene 68:275-283 (1988)), and ARG5,6 in S. cerevisiae (Pauwels et al., Eur. J Biochem. 270:1014-1024 (2003)). The ARG5,6 gene of S. cerevisiae encodes a polyprotein precursor that is matured in the mitochondrial matrix to become acetylglutamate kinase and acetylglutamylphosphate reductase, an enzyme candidate for the reduction of 6-AAHOP (FIG. 13, Step F).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism argB 145698337 NP_418394.3 Escherichia coli argB 16078186 NP_389003.1 Bacillus subtilis ARG5,6 6320913 NP_010992.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae

2.8.3.a Coenzyme-A transferase. Coenzyme-A (CoA) transferases catalyze the reversible transfer of a CoA moiety from one molecule to another. In Step M of FIG. 13, 3-aminocaproyl-CoA is formed by the transfer of a CoA group from acetyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA, or another CoA donor. A similar transformation is catalyzed by 6-acetamidohexanoate CoA-transferase, shown in Step I of FIG. 13. Exemplary CoA transferase candidates are catalyzed by the gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri which have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and butyryl-CoA transferase activity, respectively (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 105:2128-2133 (2008); and Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). Similar CoA transferase activities are also present in Trichomonas vaginalis (van Grinsven et al., J. Biol. Chem. 283:1411-1418 (2008)) and Trypanosoma brucei (Riviere et al., J. Biol. Chem. 279:45337-45346 (2004)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism cat1 729048 P38946.1 Clostridium kluyveri cat2 172046066 P38942.2 Clostridium kluyveri cat3 146349050 EDK35586.1 Clostridium kluyveri TVAG_395550 123975034 XP_001330176 Trichomonas vaginalis G3 Tb11.02.0290 71754875 XP_828352 Trypanosoma brucei

A CoA transferase that can utilize acetyl-CoA as the CoA donor is acetoacetyl-CoA transferase, encoded by the E. coli atoA (alpha subunit) and atoD (beta subunit) genes (Korolev et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 58:2116-2121 (2002); and Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)). This enzyme has a broad substrate range (Sramek and Frerman, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 171:14-26 (1975)) and has been shown to transfer the CoA moiety to acetate from a variety of branched and linear acyl-CoA substrates, including isobutyrate (Matthies and Schink, Appl Environ. Microbiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992)), valerate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)) and butanoate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)). This enzyme is induced at the transcriptional level by acetoacetate, so modification of regulatory control may be necessary for engineering this enzyme into a pathway (Pauli and Overath, Eur. J. Biochem. 29:553-562 (1972)). Similar enzymes exist in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 (Duncan et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:5186-5190 (2002)), Clostridium acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1576-1583 (1990); and Wiesenborn et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55:323-329 (1989)), and Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 71:58-68 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism AtoA 2492994 NP_416726 Escherichia coli K12 AtoD 2492990 NP_416725 Escherichia coli K12 actA 62391407 YP_226809.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 cg0592 62389399 YP_224801.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 ctfA 15004866 NP_149326.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfB 15004867 NP_149327.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfA 31075384 AAP42564.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum ctfB 31075385 AAP42565.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum

The glutaconyl-CoA-transferase (EC 2.8.3.12) enzyme from anaerobic bacterium Acidaminococcus fermentans reacts with glutaconyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)). The genes encoding this enzyme are gctA and gctB. This enzyme has reduced but detectable activity with other CoA derivatives including glutaryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA and acrylyl-CoA (Buckel et al., Eur. J Biochem. 118:315-321 (1981)). The enzyme has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Mack et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gctA 559392 CAA57199.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans gctB 559393 CAA57200.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans

Yet another CoA transferase is the two-unit succinyl-CoA:3:oxoacid-CoA transferase encoded by pcal and pcaJ in Pseudomonas putida (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002)). Similar enzymes based on homology exist in Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 (Kowalchuk et al., Gene 146:23-30 (1994)). Additional exemplary succinyl-CoA:3:oxoacid-CoA transferases are present in Helicobacter pylori (Corthesy-Theulaz et al., J Biol. Chem. 272:25659-25667 (1997)) and Bacillus subtilis (Stols et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 53:396-403 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pcaI 24985644 AAN69545.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaJ 26990657 NP_746082.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaI 50084858 YP_046368.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 pcaJ 141776 AAC37147.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 pcaI 21224997 NP_630776.1 Streptomyces coelicolor pcaJ 21224996 NP_630775.1 Streptomyces coelicolor HPAG1_0676 108563101 YP_627417 Helicobacter pylori HPAG1_0677 108563102 YP_627418 Helicobacter pylori ScoA 16080950 NP_391778 Bacillus subtilis ScoB 16080949 NP_391777 Bacillus subtilis

3.5.1.a Hydrolase (acting on linear amides). Deacetylation of linear acetamides is catalyzed by an amidohydrolase in the 3.5.1 family of enzymes. Such an enzyme is required for the deacetylation of 6-acetamidohexanamine to HMDA (FIG. 13, Step H). An enzyme catalyzing a similar transformation is 4-acetamidobutyrate deacetylase (EC 3.5.1.63), which naturally deacetylates 4-acetamidobutyrate. The enzyme, studied for its role in putrescine degradation in Candida boidinii (Gillyon et al., Journal of General Microbiology 133:2477-2485 (1987)), has been shown to deacetylate a variety of substrates including 6-acetamidohexanoate (Haywood and Large, Journal of General Microbiology 132:7-14 (1986)). Although 6-Acetamidohexanoate is similar in structure to the desired substrate, deacetylation of this compound (FIG. 13, step D, reverse reaction) may hinder efficient production of HMDA. Protein engineering or directed evolution may be required to improve specificity for 6-acetamidohexanamine. The gene associated with this activity has not been identified to date.

Acetylpolyamine amidohydrolase (EC 3.5.1.62), is another candidate enzyme that forms the diamines putrescine and cadaverine from their acetylated precursors. The acetylpolyamine deacetylase (AphA) from Mycoplana ramosa has been cloned in E. coli and characterized (Sakurada et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:5781-5786 (1996)) and a crystal structure is available (Fujishiro et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 157:1169-1174 (1988)). This enzyme has also been studied in Micrococcus luteus, but the associated gene has not been identified to date (Suzuki et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 882:140-142 (1986)). A protein the histone deacetylase superfamily with high sequence similarity to AphA was identified in the M. luteus genome (evalue=1e-18, 37% identity). The N-acetyl-L-ornithine deacetylase from E. coli is another candidate amidohydrolase (EC 3.5.1.16). The E. coli enzyme, encoded by the argE gene (McGregor et al., J Am. Chem. Soc. 127:14100-14107 (2005); and Meinnel et al., J. Bacteriol. 174:2323-2331 (1992)), removes N-acetyl groups from a variety of substrates including ornithine, lysine, glutamine, and other amino acids (Javid-Majd and Blanchard, Biochemistry 39:1285-1293 (2000)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism aphA 3023317 Q48935.1 Mycoplana ramose MlutDRAFT_1143 172071524 EDT57566.1 Micrococcus luteus argE 16131795 NP_418392.1 Escherichia coli

4.1.1.a Carboxy-lyase. Steps D and F in FIG. 12 are catalyzed by 2-ketoacid decarboxylase enzymes that generate 6-OHE and adipate semialdehyde from OHED (Step F) and 2-OHD (Step D). In addition, alpha-ketoglutarate is decarboxylated to form pathway precursor succinic semialdehyde by alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, a keto-acid decarboxylase. The decarboxylation of keto-acids is catalyzed by a variety of enzymes with varied substrate specificities, including pyruvate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.1), benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7), alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and branched-chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase. Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), also termed keto-acid decarboxylase, is a key enzyme in alcoholic fermentation, catalyzing the decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetaldehyde. The enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has a broad substrate range for aliphatic 2-keto acids including 2-ketobutyrate, 2-ketovalerate, 3-hydroxypyruvate and 2-phenylpyruvate (22). This enzyme has been extensively studied, engineered for altered activity, and functionally expressed in E. coli (Killenberg-Jabs et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001); L1, H. and F. Jordan, Biochemistry. 38:10004-10012 (1999); and ter Schure et al., Appi. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1303-1307 (1998)). The PDC from Zymomonas mobilus, encoded by pdc, also has a broad substrate range and has been a subject of directed engineering studies to alter the affinity for different substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). The crystal structure of this enzyme is available (Killenberg-Jabs et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001)). Other well-characterized PDC candidates include the enzymes from Acetobacter pasteurians (Chandra et al., Arch. Microbiol. 176:443-451 (2001)) and Kluyveromyces lactis (Krieger et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 269:3256-3263 (2002)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pdc 118391 P06672.1 Zymomonas mobilus pdc1 30923172 P06169 Saccharomyces cerevisiae pdc 20385191 Q8L388 Acetobacter pasteurians pdc1 52788279 Q12629 Kluyveromyces lactis

Like PDC, benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7) has a broad substrate range and has been the target of enzyme engineering studies. The enzyme from Pseudomonas putida has been extensively studied and crystal structures of this enzyme are available (Hasson et al., Biochemistry 37:9918-9930 (1998); and Polovnikova et al., Biochemistry 42:1820-1830 (2003)). Site-directed mutagenesis of two residues in the active site of the Pseudomonas putida enzyme altered the affinity (Km) of naturally and non-naturally occurring substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). The properties of this enzyme have been further modified by directed engineering (Lingen et al., Protein Eng 15:585-593 (2002); and Lingen et al., Chembiochem. 4:721-726 (2003)). The enzyme from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, encoded by mdlC, has also been characterized experimentally (Barrowman et al., FEMS Microbiology Letters 34:57-60 (1986)). Additional gene candidates from Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas fluorescens and other organisms can be inferred by sequence homology or identified using a growth selection system developed in Pseudomonas putida (Henning et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:7510-7517 (2006)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism mdlC 3915757 P20906.2 Pseudomonas putida mdlC 81539678 Q9HUR2.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa dpgB 126202187 ABN80423.1 Pseudomonas stutzeri ilvB-1 70730840 YP_260581.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens

A third enzyme capable of decarboxylating 2-oxoacids is alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (KGD). The substrate range of this class of enzymes has not been studied to date. The KDC from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Tian et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:10670-10675 (2005)) has been cloned and functionally expressed in other internal projects at Genomatica. However, it is not an ideal candidate for strain engineering because it is large (˜130 kD) and GC-rich. KDC enzyme activity has been detected in several species of rhizobia including Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Mesorhizobium loti (Green et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:2838-2844 (2000)). Although the KDC-encoding gene(s) have not been isolated in these organisms, the genome sequences are available and several genes in each genome are annotated as putative KDCs. A KDC from Euglena gracilis has also been characterized but the gene associated with this activity has not been identified to date (Shigeoka and Nakano, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991)). The first twenty amino acids starting from the N-terminus were sequenced MTYKAPVKDVKFLLDKVFKV (SEQ ID NO: 1) (Shigeoka and Nakano, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991)). The gene can be identified by testing candidate genes containing this N-terminal sequence for KDC activity.

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism kgd 160395583 O50463.4 Mycobacterium tuberculosis kgd 27375563 NP_767092.1 Bradyrhizobium japonicum kgd 13473636 NP_105204.1 Mesorhizobium loti

A fourth candidate enzyme for catalyzing this step is branched chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (BCKA). This class of enzyme has been shown to act on a variety of compounds varying in chain length from 3 to 6 carbons (Oku and Kaneda, J Biol Chem. 263:18386-18396 (1988); and Smit et al., Appl Environ Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005)). The enzyme in Lactococcus lactis has been characterized on a variety of branched and linear substrates including 2-oxobutanoate, 2-oxohexanoate, 2-oxopentanoate, 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate, 4-methyl-2-oxobutanoate and isocaproate (Smit et al., Appl Environ Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005)). The enzyme has been structurally characterized (Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007)). Sequence alignments between the Lactococcus lactis enzyme and the pyruvate decarboxylase of Zymomonas mobilus indicate that the catalytic and substrate recognition residues are nearly identical (Siegert et al., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)), so this enzyme would be a promising candidate for directed engineering. Decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate by a BCKA was detected in Bacillus subtilis; however, this activity was low (5%) relative to activity on other branched-chain substrates (Oku and Kaneda, J Biol Chem. 263:18386-18396 (1988)) and the gene encoding this enzyme has not been identified to date. Additional BCKA gene candidates can be identified by homology to the Lactococcus lactis protein sequence. Many of the high-scoring BLASTp hits to this enzyme are annotated as indolepyruvate decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1.74). Indolepyruvate decarboxylase (IPDA) is an enzyme that catalyzes the decarboxylation of indolepyruvate to indoleacetaldehyde in plants and plant bacteria.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism kdcA 44921617 AAS49166.1 Lactococcus lactis

Recombinant branched chain alpha-keto acid decarboxylase enzymes derived from the E1 subunits of the mitochondrial branched-chain keto acid dehydrogenase complex from Homo sapiens and Bos taurus have been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Davie et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:16601-16606 (1992); Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:1881-1887 (1992); and Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:12400-12403 (1992)). In these studies, the authors found that co-expression of chaperonins GroEL and GroES enhanced the specific activity of the decarboxylase by 500-fold (Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:12400-12403 (1992)). These enzymes are composed of two alpha and two beta subunits.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism BCKDHB 34101272 NP_898871.1 Homo sapiens BCKDHA 11386135 NP_000700.1 Homo sapiens BCKDHB 115502434 P21839 Bos taurus BCKDHA 129030 P11178 Bos taurus

The decarboxylation of 2-AHD to 6-aminocaproate (FIG. 12, Step I) is catalyzed by an amino acid decarboxylase such as aspartate decarboxylase. Aspartate decarboxylase participates in pantothenate biosynthesis and is encoded by gene panD in Escherichia coli (Dusch et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:1530-1539 (1999); Merke and Nichols, FEMS Microbiol Lett. 143:247-252 (1996); Ramjee et al., Biochem. J323 (Pt 3):661-669 (1997); and Schmitzberger et al., EMBO J 22:6193-6204 (2003)). Similar enzymes from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Chopra et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 25:533-540 (2002)) and Corynebacterium glutamicum (Dusch et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:1530-1539 (1999)) have been expressed and characterized in E. coli.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism panD 67470411 P0A790 Escherichia coli K12 panD 18203593 Q9X4N0 Corynebacterium glutamicum panD 54041701 P65660.1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis

4.1.2.a Aldehyde-lyase. HOHD aldolase, also known as HHED aldolase, catalyzes the conversion of 4-hydroxy-2-oxo-heptane-1,7-dioate (HOHD) into pyruvate and succinic semialdehyde (FIG. 12, Step A). The enzyme is a divalent metal ion dependent class II aldolase, catalyzing the final step of 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid degradation in E. coli C, E. coli W, and other organisms. In the native context, the enzyme functions in the degradative direction. The reverse (condensation) reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable; however the equilibrium can be shifted through coupling HOHD aldolase with downstream pathway enzymes that work efficiently on reaction products. Such strategies have been effective for shifting the equilibrium of other aldolases in the condensation direction (Nagata et al., Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 44:432-438 (1995); and Pollard et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 64:4093-4094 (1998)). The E. coli C enzyme, encoded by hpcH, has been extensively studied and has recently been crystallized (Rea et al., J Mol. Biol. 373:866-876 (2007); and Stringfellow et al., Gene 166:73-76 (1995)). The E. coli W enzyme is encoded by hpaI (Prieto et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:111-120 (1996)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism hpcH 633197 CAA87759.1 Escherichia coli C hpaI 38112625 AAR11360.1 Escherichia coli W

4.2.1.a Hydro-lyase. The enzyme OHED hydratase participates in 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid degradation, where it converts 2-oxo-hept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED) to 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-hepta-1,7-dioate (HODH) using magnesium as a cofactor (Burks et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120 (1998)) (FIG. 12, Step B). OHED hydratase enzyme candidates have been identified and characterized in E. coli C (Izumi et al., J Mol. Biol. 370:899-911 (2007); and Roper et al., Gene 156:47-51 (1995)) and E. coli W (Prieto et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:111-120 (1996)). Sequence comparison reveals homologs in a range of bacteria, plants and animals. Enzymes with highly similar sequences are contained in Klebsiella pneumonia (91% identity, evalue=2e-138) and Salmonella enterica (91% identity, evalue=4e-138), among others.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hpcG 556840 CAA57202.1 Escherichia coli C hpaH 757830 CAA86044.1 Escherichia coli W hpaH 150958100 ABR80130.1 Klebsiella pneumoniae Sari_01896 160865156 ABX21779.1 Salmonella enterica

Dehydration of 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA (FIG. 12, Step M) is catalyzed by an enzyme with enoyl-CoA hydratase activity. 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.55), also called crotonase, dehydrates 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to form crotonoyl-CoA (FIG. 14, step 2). Crotonase enzymes are required for n-butanol formation in some organisms, particularly Clostridial species, and also comprise one step of the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle in thermoacidophilic Archaea of the genera Sulfolobus, Acidianus, and Metallosphaera. Exemplary genes encoding crotonase enzymes can be found in C. acetobutylicum (Atsumi et al., Metab Eng 10:305-311 (2008); and Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)), C. kluyveri (Hillmer and Gottschalk, FEBS Lett. 21:351-354 (1972)), and Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007)) though the sequence of the latter gene is not known.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism crt 15895969 NP_349318.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum crt1 153953091 YP_001393856.1 Clostridium kluyveri

Enoyl-CoA hydratases (EC 4.2.1.17) also catalyze the dehydration of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA substrates (Agnihotri and Liu., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2003); Conrad et al., J. Bacteriol. 118:103-111 (1974); and Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol. 117:99-108 (1978)). The enoyl-CoA hydratase of Pseudomonas putida, encoded by ech, catalyzes the conversion of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonoyl-CoA (Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol. 117:99-108 (1978)). Additional enoyl-CoA hydratase candidates are phaA and phaB, of P. putida, and paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 95:6419-6424 (1998)). The gene product of pimF in Rhodopseudomonas palustris is predicted to encode an enoyl-CoA hydratase that participates in pimeloyl-CoA degradation (Harrison and Harwood, Microbiology 151:727-736 (2005)). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC (Park and Lee, J. Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397 (2003)), paaF (Ismail et al., J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol 113-116:335-346 (2004); and Park and Yup, Biotechnol Bioeng 86:681-686 (2004)) and paaG (Ismail et al., J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol 113-116:335-346 (2004); and Park and Yup, Biotechnol Bioeng 86:681-686 (2004)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism ech 26990073 NP_745498.1 Pseudomonas putida paaA 26990002 NP_745427.1 Pseudomonas putida paaB 26990001 NP_745426.1 Pseudomonas putida phaA 106636093 ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens phaB 106636094 ABF82234.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens pimF 39650635 CAE29158 Rhodopseudomonas palustris maoC 16129348 NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli paaF 16129354 NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli paaG 16129355 NP_415912.1 Escherichia coli

Alternatively, the E. coli gene products of fadA and fadB encode a multienzyme complex involved in fatty acid oxidation that exhibits enoyl-CoA hydratase activity (Nakahigashi and Inokuchi, Nucleic Acids Res. 18:4937 (1990); Yang, J. Bacteriol. 173:7405-7406 (1991); and Yang et al., Biochemistry 30:6788-6795 (1991)). Knocking out a negative regulator encoded by fadR can be utilized to activate the fadB gene product (Sato et al., J Biosci. Bioeng 103:38-44 (2007)). The fadl and fadJ genes encode similar functions and are naturally expressed under anaerobic conditions (Campbell et al., Mol. Microbiol. 47:793-805 (2003)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism fadA 49176430 YP_026272.1 Escherichia coli fadB 16131692 NP_418288.1 Escherichia coli fadI 16130275 NP_416844.1 Escherichia coli fadJ 16130274 NP_416843.1 Escherichia coli fadR 16129150 NP_415705.1 Escherichia coli

6.2.1.a Acid-thiol ligase (also called CoA synthetase). Steps I and M of FIG. 13 require acid-thiol ligase or CoA synthetase functionality to transform 6-ACA and 6-acetamidohexanoate into their corresponding CoA derivatives (the terms ligase, synthetase, and synthase are used herein interchangeably and refer to the same enzyme class). Enzymes catalyzing these exact transformations have not been characterized to date; however, several enzymes with broad substrate specificities have been described in the literature. ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACD, EC 6.2.1.13) is an enzyme that couples the conversion of acyl-CoA esters to their corresponding acids with the concomitant synthesis of ATP. ACD I from Archaeoglobus fulgidus, encoded by AF1211, was shown to operate on a variety of linear and branched-chain substrates including isobutyrate, isopentanoate, and fumarate (Musfeldt and Schonheit, J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). A second reversible ACD in Archaeoglobus fulgidus, encoded by AF1983, was also shown to have a broad substrate range with high activity on cyclic compounds phenylacetate and indoleacetate (Musfeldt and Schonheit, J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). The enzyme from Haloarcula marismortui (annotated as a succinyl-CoA synthetase) accepts propionate, butyrate, and branched-chain acids (isovalerate and isobutyrate) as substrates, and was shown to operate in the forward and reverse directions (Brasen and Schonheit, Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004)). The ACD encoded by PAE3250 from hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum showed the broadest substrate range of all characterized ACDs, reacting with acetyl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA (preferred substrate) and phenylacetyl-CoA (Brasen and Schonheit, Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004)). Directed evolution or engineering can be used to modify this enzyme to operate at the physiological temperature of the host organism. The enzymes from A. fulgidus, H. marismortui and P. aerophilum have all been cloned, functionally expressed, and characterized in E. coli (Brasen and Schonheit, Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004); and Musfeldt and Schonheit, J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). An additional candidate is the enzyme encoded by sucCD in E. coli, which naturally catalyzes the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate with the concomitant consumption of one ATP, a reaction which is reversible in vivo (Buck et al., Biochemistry 24:6245-6252 (1985)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism AF1211 11498810 NP_070039.1 Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304 AF1983 11499565 NP_070807.1 Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304 scs 55377722 YP_135572.1 Haloarcula marismortui ATCC 43049 PAE3250 18313937 NP_560604.1 Pyrobaculum aerophilum str. IM2 sucC 16128703 NP_415256.1 Escherichia coli sucD 1786949 AAC73823.1 Escherichia coli

Another candidate enzyme for this step is 6-carboxyhexanoate-CoA ligase, also known as pimeloyl-CoA ligase (EC 6.2.1.14), which naturally activates pimelate to pimeloyl-CoA during biotin biosynthesis in gram-positive bacteria. The enzyme from Pseudomonas mendocina, cloned into E. coli, was shown to accept the alternate substrates hexanedioate and nonanedioate (Binieda et al., Biochem. J340 (Pt 3):793-801 (1999)). Other candidates are found in Bacillus subtilis (Bower et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:4122-4130 (1996)) and Lysinibacillus sphaericus (formerly Bacillus sphaericus) (Ploux et al., Biochem. J287 (Pt 3):685-690 (1992)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pauA 15596214 NP_249708.1 Pseudomonas mendocina bioW 50812281 NP_390902.2 Bacillus subtilis bioW 115012 P22822.1 Lysinibacillus sphaericus

Additional CoA-ligases include the rat dicarboxylate-CoA ligase for which the sequence is yet uncharacterized (Vamecq et al., Biochem. J230:683-693 (1985)), either of the two characterized phenylacetate-CoA ligases from P. chrysogenum (Lamas-Maceiras et al., Biochem. J395:147-155 (2006); and Wang et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 360:453-458 (2007)) and the phenylacetate-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida (Martinez-Blanco et al., J. Biol. Chem. 265:7084-7090 (1990)). Additional candidate enzymes are acetoacetyl-CoA synthetases from Mus musculus (Hasegawa et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1779:414-419 (2008)) and Homo sapiens (Ohgami et al., Biochem. Pharmacol. 65:989-994 (2003)) which naturally catalyze the ATP-dependant conversion of acetoacetate into acetoacetyl-CoA.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism phl 77019264 CAJ15517.1 Penicillium chrysogenum phlB 152002983 ABS19624.1 Penicillium chrysogenum paaF 22711873 AAC24333.2 Pseudomonas putida AACS 21313520 NP_084486.1 Mus musculus AACS 31982927 NP_076417.2 Homo sapiens

EXAMPLE XXII Demonstration of Escherichia coli Tolerance to 6-Aminocaproate

E. coli was assayed for tolerance, metabolic activity and growth during exposure to various concentrations of 6-aminocaproate (6-ACA). Aerobically, cultures were able to grow media with up to 10% 6-ACA, while anaerobic cultures could grow in media with approximately 6% 6-ACA (FIG. 15). Because the pathway for producing 6-ACA could require anaerobic conditions, all other further testing was performed under anaerobic conditions. To assay tolerance, cultures were grown anaerobically to mid-log(0.3 OD) and early stationary phase (0.6 OD), the cells were spun down and resuspended in medium containing various concentrations of 6-ACA. The cultures were grown in capped microfuge tubes, grown overnight and the ODs of the cultures were assayed (FIG. 16). Under these conditions, cultures were able to grow (double at least 1 time) in up to 10% 6-ACA. The additional tolerance could have been from the additional glucose from resuspending the cultures in fresh M9-glucose medium or from limited oxygen that was present in the capped microfuge tube. To determine if the cells were metabolically active in the presence of 6-ACA, samples were taken and assayed for ethanol production (FIG. 17). Ethanol production (and thus metabolic activity) closely tracked with OD suggesting that if cells are present, they are likely to be metabolically active. This is helpful to understand because it suggests that even though cells may be growth inhibited by the accumulation of a product, they can still continue to produce product.

At high concentrations (>65 g/L) the osmolarity of 6-ACA is ˜0.5 M which may cause osmotic stress. To determine osmotic stress as the basis for 6-ACA growth inhibition, cultures were grown in various concentrations of 6-ACA with and without the osmoprotectant glycine betaine. As seen in FIG. 18, anaerobic growth in medium with up to 10-12% 6-ACA can be achieved if glycine betaine is present but only 4-6% without glycine betaine. Therefore much of the toxicity of 6-ACA is likely due to the osmotic stress. However, it should be noted that G-ACA is similar to the amino acid lysine and could have a greater toxic effect in the cell cytoplasm vs. outside the cell.

EXAMPLE XXIII Demonstration of Enzyme Activity for Condensing Succinyl-CoA and Acetyl-CoA to Form β-ketoadipyl-CoA

Several β-ketothiolase enzymes have been shown to break β-ketoadipyl-CoA into acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA. For example, the gene products encoded by pcaF in Pseudomonas strain B13 (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol, 184(1): 207-15 (2002)), phaD in Pseudomonas putida U (Olivera et al., Proc Nall Acad Sci USA, 95(11), 6419-24 (1998)), paaE in Pseudomonas fluorescens ST (Di Gennaro et al., Arch Microbiol, 188(2), 117-25 (2007)), and paaJ from E. coli (Nogales et al., Microbiology, 153(Pt 2), 357-65 (2007)) catalyze the conversion of 3-oxoadipyl-CoA into succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA during the degradation of aromatic compounds such as phenylacetate or styrene. To confirm that β-ketothiolase enzymes exhibit condensation activity, several thiolases (Table 10; SEQ ID NOS: 3-50, respectively) were cloned into a derivative of pZE13 (Lutz et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 29(18), 3873-81 (2001)), which results in the clones having a carboxy-terminal 6×His tag (SEQ ID NO: 2).

TABLE 10 Cloned Thiolases Species  Enzyme template Gene Length 5′ PRIMER 3′ PRIMER ORF SEQ beta- Ralstonia bktB 1185 ATGACGCGTGAAG GATACGCTCGAAGAT atgacgcgtgaagtggtagtggtaagc ketothiolase eutropha H16 TGGTAGTGGTAAG GGCGG ggtgtccgtaccgcgatcgggaccttt (SEQ ID NO: 3) (SEQ ID NO: 4) ggcggcagcctgaaggatgtggcaccg gcggagctgggcgcactggtggtgcgc gaggcgctggcgcgcgcgcaggtgtcg ggcgacgatgtcggccacgtggtattc ggcaacgtgatccagaccgagccgcgc gacatgtatctgggccgcgtcgcggcc gtcaacggcggggtgacgatcaacgcc cccgcgctgaccgtgaaccgcctgtgc ggctcgggcctgcaggccattgtcagc gccgcgcagaccatcctgctgggcgat accgacgtcgccatcggcggcggcgcg gaaagcatgagccgcgcaccgtacctg gcgccggcagcgcgctggggcgcacgc atgggcgacgccggcctggtcgacatg atgctgggtgcgctgcacgatcccttc catcgcatccacatgggcgtgaccgcc gagaatgtcgccaaggaatacgacatc tcgcgcgcgcagcaggacgaggccgcg ctggaatcgcaccgccgcgcttcggca gcgatcaaggccggctacttcaaggac cagatcgtcccggtggtgagcaagggc cgcaagggcgacgtgaccttcgacacc gacgagcacgtgcgccatgacgccacc atcgacgacatgaccaagctcaggccg gtcttcgtcaaggaaaacggcacggtc acggccggcaatgcctcgggcctgaac gacgccgccgccgcggtggtgatgatg gagcgcgccgaagccgagcgccgcggc ctgaagccgctggcccgcctggtgtcg tacggccatgccggcgtggacccgaag gccatgggcatcggcccggtgccggcg acgaagatcgcgctggagcgcgccggc ctgcaggtgtcggacctggacgtgatc gaagccaacgaagcctttgccgcacag gcgtgcgccgtgaccaaggcgctcggt ctggacccggccaaggttaacccgaac ggctcgggcatctcgctgggccacccg atcggcgccaccggtgccctgatcacg gtgaaggcgctgcatgagctgaaccgc gtgcagggccgctacgcgctggtgacg atgtgcatcggcggcgggcagggcatt gccgccatcttcgagcgtatctga (SEQ ID NO: 5) 2- Mus musculus ACAT1 1215 ATGGAAGTAAGAT CAGCTTCTCAATCAG atggaagtaagatgcctggaacgaagt Methylaceto- GCCTGGAACGAAG CAGGGC tatgcatccaaacccactttgaatgaa acetyl-CoA (SEQ ID NO: 6) (SEQ ID NO: 7) gtggttatagtaagtgctataagaact Thiolase cccattggatccttcctgggcagcctt (branched gcctctcagccggccactaaacttggt chain?) actgctgcaattcagggagccattgag aaggcagggattccaaaagaagaagtg aaggaagtctacatgggcaatgtcatc caagggggtgaaggacaggcccctacc aggcaagcaacactgggcgcaggttta cctatttccactccatgcaccacagta aacaaggtttgtgcttcaggaatgaaa gccatcatgatggcctctcaaagtctt atgtgtggacatcaggatgtgatggtg gcaggcgggatggagagcatgtccaat gtcccatacgtaatgagcagaggagca acaccatatggtggggtaaaacttgaa gacctgattgtaaaagacgggctaact gatgtctacaataaaattcatatgggt aactgtgctgagaatactgcaaagaag atgaatatctcacggcaggaacaggat acgtacgctctcagctcttacaccaga agtaaagaagcgtgggacgcagggaag tttgccagtgagattactcccatcacc atctcagtgaaaggtaaaccagatgtg gtggtgaaagaagatgaagaatacaag cgtgttgactttagtaaagtgccaaag ctcaagaccgtgttccagaaagaaaat ggcacaataacagctgccaatgccagc acactgaacgatggagcagctgctctg gttctcatgactgcagaggcagcccag aggctcaatgttaagccattggcacga attgcagcatttgctgatgctgccgta gaccccattgattttccacttgcgcct gcatatgccgtacctaaggttcttaaa tatgcaggactgaaaaaagaagacatt gccatgtgggaagtaaatgaagcattc agtgtggttgtgctagccaacattaaa atgctggagattgacccccaaaaagta aatatccacggaggagctgtttctctg ggccatccaattgggatgtctggagcc cggattgttgttcatatggctcatgcc ctgaagccaggagagttcggtctggct agtatttgcaacggaggaggaggtgct tccgccctgctgattgagaagctgtag (SEQ ID NO: 8) 2- Pseudomonas fadAX 1194 ATGACCCTCGCCA GTACAGGCATTCAAC atgaccctcgccaatgaccccatcgtt Methylaceto- putida  ATGACCC AGCCATGG atcgtcagcgccgtgcgcacgcccatg acetyl-CoA (KT2440) (SEQ ID NO: 9) (SEQ ID NO: 10) ggcgggttgcagggcgacctcaagagc Thiolase ctgactgcgccgcaactgggcagcgcc (branched gccattcgtgctgccgtggaacgggcc chain?) ggcatcgatgccgccggtgtcgagcag gtactgttcggctgcgtgctgccggcc ggccagggccaggcaccggcacgccag gccgcgctgggcgccgggctggacaag cacaccacctgcaccaccctgaacaag atgtgcggctcgggtatgcaagccgcg atcatggcccatgacctgctgctggcc ggcaccgcagacgtggtagtggcgggt ggcatggaaagcatgaccaacgcgccg tacctgctggacaaagcccgtggcggc taccgcatgggccacggcaagatcatc gaccacatgttcatggacggtctcgaa gacgcctacgacaaaggccgcctgatg ggtacctttgccgaggactgtgcccag gccaatgccttcagccgcgaggcccag gaccagttcgccatcgcctcgctgacc cgagcgcaggaagccatcagcagcggc cgttttgccgccgagatcgtgccggtg gaagtcaccgagggcaaggaaaagcgc gtcatcaaggatgacgagcagccgccc aaggcgcgtctggacaagattgcgcag ctcaaaccggcgtttcgtgaaggcggc accgtgacggcggccaacgccagttcg atttccgacggcgctgcggcgctggta ctgatgcgccgctccgaggccgacaaa cgtggcctcaagccattggccgtcatc cacggccacgccgcctttgccgacacc ccggcgctgttcccgaccgccccgatc ggcgcgatcgacaaactgatgaaacgc accggctggaacctggccgaagtcgac ctgttcgagatcaacgaggccttcgcc gtggtcaccctggcggccatgaaacac ctcgacctgccacacgacaaggtcaat atccacggcggcgcctgcgccctcggt cacccgatcggcgcttctggcgcacgt tatctggtcaccctgttgtcggccttg cgccagaacaatctgcgtcggggtgtg gcggccatctgcatcggcggtggcgag gccacggccatggctgttgaatgcctg tactca (SEQ ID NO: 11) beta- Caenorhabditis kat-1 1167 ATGAACAAACATG TAATTTCTGGATAAC atgaacaaacatgctttcatcgtcgga ketothiolase elegans CTTTCATCGTCG CATTCCACTTGAGC gccgcccgtacacctattggatcattt (SEQ ID NO: 12) (SEQ ID NO: 13) cgttcttctctctcttcggtaactgct ccagagctcgcctcggttgccatcaaa gcagcattggagcgtggagcagtgaag ccgagttcaattcaggaggtgttcctt ggtcaagtctgtcaagcaaatgctggt caagctcccgctcgtcaagcagctctt ggagccggactcgatctttcggttgct gttaccaccgtcaataaagtgtgctct tctgggctgaaagcaatcattcttgct gcccagcaaattcaaaccggtcatcaa gattttgccattggcggaggaatggag agcatgtcacaagtaccattttatgtt caaagaggagagatcccatatggtgga tttcaagtgattgatggaatcgtcaaa gacggactgaccgatgcttatgataaa gttcacatgggaaactgcggagagaag acttcaaaagaaatgggaattacacgt  aaagaccaagacgaatatgctatcaac agctacaaaaagtcagctaaagcatgg gagaatggaaatatcggaccagaagtg  gtgccagtgaacgtcaaatcaaagaag ggagtcacgattgttgataaagatgaa gagttcacaaaagtcaatttcgacaag  ttcacctcgctgagaactgttttccag aaagacggaactatcactgctgctaat gcttcaacattgaacgacggtgcagct  gctgtcattgttgcctcacaggaagca gtttccgagcaaagcttaaagcctctg  gcccgaattttggcttatggagatgcc gccacgcacccactcgatttcgctgta gcaccaactttgatgttcccaaaaatt cttgaaagagcaggagtgaagcaatca gatgttgctcaatgggaagttaatgaa gcctctcatgtgttccccttgctttca tcaaaaaactaggagtcgatccatccc ttgtgaacccacatggaggagctgttt caattggtcaccccatcggaatgtccg gagcccgcctcatcactcatcttgtgc acacactcaaaagtggccaaatcggag ttgctgccatttgcaatggaggtggtg gctcaagtggaatggttatccagaaat tataa (SEQ ID NO: 14) beta- Escherichia paaJ 1206 ATGCGTGAAGCCT AACACGCTCCAGAAT atgcgtgaagcctttatttgtgacgga ketothiolase coli TTATTTGTGACG CATGGCG attcgtacgccaattggtcgctacggc NP_415915.1 (SEQ ID NO: 15) (SEQ ID NO: 16) ggggcattatcaagtgttcgggctgat gatctggctgctatccctttgcgggaa ctgctggtgcgaaacccgcgtctcgat gcggagtgtatcgatgatgtgatcctc ggctgtgctaatcaggcgggagaagat aaccgtaacgtagcccggatggcgact ttactggcggggctgccgcagagtgtt tccggcacaaccattaaccgcttgtgt ggttccgggctggacgcactggggttt gccgcacgggcgattaaagcgggcgat ggcgatttgctgatcgccggtggcgtg gagtcaatgtcacgggcaccgtttgtt atgggcaaggcagccagtgcattttct cgtcaggctgagatgttcgataccact attggctggcgatttgtgaacccgctc atggctcagcaatttggaactgacagc atgccggaaacggcagagaatgtagct gaactgttaaaaatctcacgagaagat caagatagttttgcgctacgcagtcag caacgtacggcaaaagcgcaatcctca ggcattctggctgaggagattgttccg gttgtgttgaaaaacaagaaaggtgtt gtaacagaaatacaacatgatgagcat ctgcgcccggaaacgacgctggaacag ttacgtgggttaaaagcaccatttcgt gccaatggggtgattaccgcaggcaat gcttccggggtgaatgacggagccgct gcgttgattattgccagtgaacagatg gcagcagcgcaaggactgacaccgcgg gcgcgtatcgtagccatggcaaccgcc ggggtggaaccgcgcctgatggggctt ggtccggtgcctgcaactcgccgggtg ctggaacgcgcagggctgagtattcac gatatggacgtgattgaactgaacgaa gcgttcgcggcccaggcgttgggtgta ctacgcgaattggggctgcctgatgat gccccacatgttaaccccaacggaggc gctatcgccttaggccatccgttggga atgagtggtgcccgcctggcactggct gccagccatgagctgcatcggcgtaac ggtcgttacgcattgtgcaccatgtgc atcggtgtcggtcagggcatcgccatg attctggagcgtgtttga (SEQ ID NO: 17) beta- Psuedomonas phaD 1221 ATGAATGAACCGA GAGGCGCTCGATGAT atgaatgaaccgacccacgccgatgcc ketothiolase putida CCCACGCC CATGG ttgatcatcgacgccgtgcgcacgccc AAN6887.1 (KT2440) (SEQ ID NO: 18) (SEQ ID NO: 19) attggccgctatgccggggccctgagc agcgtgcgcgccgacgacctggcggcc atcccgctcaaagccttgatccagcgt caccccgaactggactggaaagccatt gatgacgttatcttcggctgtgccaac caggctggcgaagacaaccgcaacgtg gcccacatggcgagcctgctggccggg ctgccactcgaagtaccagggaccacg atcaaccgcctgtgcggttccggtctg gatgccatcggtaatgcggcacgtgcc ctgcgctgcggtgaagcggggctcatg ctggccggtggtgtggagtccatgtcg cgtgcaccgtttgtgatgggtaagtcg gagcaggcattcgggcgtgcggccgag ctgttcgacaccaccatcggctggcgt ttcgtcaacccgctgatgaaggccgcc tacggcatcgattcgatgccggaaacg gctgaaaacgtggccgaacagttcggc atctcgcgcgccgaccaggatgccttt gccctgcgcagccagcacaaagccgca gcagctcaggcccgcggccgcctggcg cgggaaatcgtgccggtcgaaatcccg caacgcaaaggcccagccaaagtggtc gagcatgacgagcacccgcgcggcgac acgaccctggagcagctggctcggctc gggacgccgtttcgtgaaggcggcagc gtaacggcgggtaatgcctccggcgtg aatgacggcgcttgcgccctgctgctg gccagcagcgccgcggcccgccgccat gggttgaaggcccgcggccgcatcgtc ggcatggcggtggccggggttgagccc aggctgatgggcattggtccggtgcct gcgacccgcaaggtgctggcgctcacc ggcctggcactggctgacctggatgtc atcgaactcaatgaggcctttgccgcc caagggctggccgtgttgcgcgagctg ggcctggccgacgacgacccgcgagtc aaccgcaacggcggcgccatcgccctg ggccatcccctgggcatgagcggtgcc cggttggtgaccactgccttgcacgag cttgaagaaacggccggccgctacgcc ctgtgcaccatgtgcatcggcgtaggc caaggcattgccatgatcatcgagcgc ctctga (SEQ ID NO: 20) beta- Clostridium thiA 1179 ATGAAAGAAGTTGT GCACTTTTCTAGCAA atgaaagaagttgtaatagctagtgca ketothiolase acetobutylicum AATAGCTAGTGCAG TATTGCTGTTCC gtaagaacagcgattggatctttatgg NP_349476.1 ATCC 824 TAAGAAC (SEQ ID NO: 22) aaagtctcttaaggatgtaccagcagt (SEQ ID NO: 21) agatttaggagctacagctataaagga agcagttaaaaaagcaggaataaaacc agaggatgttaatgaagtcattttagg aaatgttcttcaagcaggtttaggaca gaatccagcaagacaggcatcttttaa agcaggattaccagttgaaattccagc tatgactattaataaggtttgtggttc aggacttagaacagttagcttagcagc acaaattataaaagcaggagatgctga cgtaataatagcaggtggtatggaaaa tatgtctagagctccttacttagcgaa  taacgctagatggggatatagaatggg  aaacgctaaatttgttgatgaaatgat cactgacggattgtgggatgcatttaa  tgattaccacatgggaataacagcaga aaacatagctgagagatggaacatttc aagagaagaacaagatgagtttgctct tgcatcacaaaaaaaagctgaagaagc tataaaatcaggtcaatttaaagatga aatagttcctgtagtaattaaaggcag aaagggagaaactgtagttgatacaga tgagcaccctagatttggatcaactat  agaaggacttgcaaaattaaaacctgc  cttcaaaaaagatggaacagttacagc tggtaatgcatcaggattaaatgactg  tgcagcagtacttgtaatcatgagtgc agaaaagctaaagagcttggagtaaaa  ccacttgctaagatagtttcttatggt  tcagcaggagttgacccagcaataatg ggatatggacctttctatgcaacaaaa  gcagctattgaaaaagcaggttggaca  gttgatgaattagatttaatagaatca aatgaagcttttgcagctcaaagttta  gcagtagcaaaagatttaaaatttgat atgaataaagtaaatgtaaatggagga  gctattgcccttggtcatccaattgga  gcatcaggtgcaagaatactcgttact cttgtacacgcaatgcaaaaaagagat  gcaaaaaaaggcttagcaactttatgt  ataggtggcggacaaggaacagcaata ttgctagaaaagtgctag (SEQ ID NO: 23) beta- Clostridium thiB 1179 ATGAGAGATGTAGTA GTCTCTTTCAACTAC atgagagatgtagtaatagtaagtgct ketothioalse acetobutylicum ATAGTAAGTGCTGTA GAGAGCTGTTCCC gtaagaactgcaataggagcatatgga NP_149242.1 ATCC 824 AGAACTG (SEQ ID NO: 25) aaaacattaaaggatgtacctgcaaca (SEQ ID NO: 24) gagttaggagctatagtaataaaggaa gctgtaagaagagctaatataaatcca aatgagattaatgaagttatttttgga aatgtacttcaagctggattaggccaa aacccagcaagacaagcagcagtaaaa gcaggattacctttagaaacacctgcg tttacaatcaataaggtttgtggttca ggtttaagatctataagtttagcagct caaattataaaagctggagatgctgat accattgtagtaggtggtatggaaaat atgtctagatcaccatatttgattaac aatcagagatggggtcaaagaatggga gatagtgaattagttgatgaaatgata aaggatggtttgtgggatgcatttaat ggatatcatatgggagtaactgcagaa aatattgcagaacaatggaatataaca agagaagagcaagatgatttttcactt atgtcacaacaaaaagctgaaaaagcc attaaaaatggagaatttaaggatgaa atagttcctgtattaataaagactaaa aaaggtgaaatagtctttgatcaagat gaatttcctagattcggaaacactatt gaagcattaagaaaacttaaacctatt ttcaaggaaaatggtactgttacagca ggtaatgcatccggattaaatgatgga gctgcagcactagtaataatgagcgct gataaagctaacgctctcggaataaaa ccacttgctaagattacttcttacgga tcatatggggtagatccatcaataatg ggatatggagctttttatgcaactaaa gctgccttagataaaattaatttaaaa cctgaagacttagatttaattgaagct aacgaggcatatgcttctcaaagtata gcagtaactagagatttaaatttagat atgagtaaagttaatgttaatggtgga gctatagcacttggacatccaataggt gcatctggtgcacgtattttagtaaca ttactatacgctatgcaaaaaagagat tcaaaaaaaggtcttgctactctatgt attggtggaggtcagggaacagctctc gtagttgaaagagactaa (SEQ ID NO: 26) 3-oxoadipyl- Candida POT98 1182 ATGTTCAAGAAATCA CTCGTTAGCAAACAA atgttcaagaaatcagctaatgatatt CoA thiolase albicans GCTAATGATATTGTT GGCAGCG gttgttattgcagcaaagagaactcca SC5314 G (SEQ ID NO: 28) atcaccaagtcaattaaaggtgggttg (SEQ ID NO: 27) agtagattatttcctgaggaaatatta tatcaagtggttaagggtactgtatca gattcacaagttgatttaaacttgatt gatgatgtgttagtcggtacggtcttg caaactttagggggacagaaagctagt gccttggccattaaaaagattggattc ccaattaagaccacggttaatacggtc aatcgtcaatgtgctagttctgctcaa gcgattacttatcaagcaggtagtttg cgtagtggggagaatcaatttgctatt gctgctggagtagaaagtatgactcat gattattttcctcatcgtgggattccc acaagaatttctgaatcatttttagct gatgcatccgatgaagctaaaaacgtc ttgatgccaatggggataaccagtgaa aatgttgccactaaatatggaatttct cgtaaacaacaagatgagtttgccctt aattctcatttgaaagcagcacaaggc tacaaaactgggtcattttgcaaaaga aatcattcctattcaaacaacggatga aaacaaccaacacgtttcaataaccaa agatgatggtataaggggaagttcaac aattgaaaagttgggtggcttaaaacc tgtgttcaaggatgatgggactactac tgctggtaattcctcgcaaatttcaga tggagggtctgctgtgattttaactac tcgtcaaaatgctgagaaatcgggagt aaagccaatagctagatttattggttc gtcagtagctggtgttccttcgggact tatgggaattggtccatcggctgctat tcctcaattgttgtcgagattaaatgt tgacacgaaagacattgatatttttga attgaacgaggcatttgcatcccaact gatttattgtattgaaaaattgggtct tgattatgataaagtcaatccatatgg tggagctatagccttgggacatccatt aggagccactggcgcaagagttacggc aacgttgcttaatggattaaaagatca gaataaagagttgggtgtcatctcaat gtgcacatccacaggtcaaggatacgc tgccttgtttgctaacgagtag (SEQ ID NO: 29) 3-oxoadipyl- Candida POT1 1227 ATGGATAGATTAAAT TTCCTTAATCAATAT atggatagattaaatcaattaagtggt CoA thiolase albicans CAATTAAGTGGTCAA GGAGGCAGCAC caattaaaaccaacttcaaaacaatcc SC5314 TTAAAACC (SEQ ID NO: 31) cttactcaaaagaacccagacgatgtt (SEQ ID NO: 30) gtcatcgttgcagcatacagaactgcc atcggtaaaggtttcaaagggtctttc aaatctgtgcaatctgaattcatcttg actgaattcttgaaagaatttattaaa aagactggagtcgatgcatctttgatt gaagatgttgctattggtaacgttttg aaccaagctgctggtgccaccgaacac agaggtgctagtttggctgcaggtatt ccttacactgcagctttccttgccatc aacagattgtgttcctcagggttaatg gccatttctgacattgccaacaaaatc aaaaccggtgaaatcgaatgtggtctt gctggtggtattgaatccatgtctaaa aactatggtagtccaaaagttattcca aagattgacccacacttggctgatgac gaacaaatgagtaaatgtttgattcca atgggtatcaccaacgaaaatgttgct aatgaattcaacattccaagagaaaaa caagatgcctttgctgctaaatcttat agtaaagccgaaaaagccatctcctct ggagctttcaaagatgaaatcttacca atcagatccattatcagatccccagac ggttctgaaaaagaaatcattgtcgat accgacgaaggtccaagaaagggtgtt gacgctgcttccttgagcaaattgaaa ccagcatttggtggtactaccactgcc ggtaacgcttctcaaatttcagatggt gctgctggtgttttattgatgaagaga agtttggctgaagccaaaggttaccca attgttgctaaatacattgcttgttca actgttggtgttccgccagaaatcatg ggtgttggtccagcttacgccattcca gaagtgttgaagagaactggattgact gtggatgacgttgatgtgtttgaaatc aacgaagcttttgctgctcaatgtctt tactcagctgaacaatgtaatgttcca gaagaaaaattgaacataaacggtggt gccatcgctttaggtcatcctcttggt tgtactggtgccagacaatatgccact atcttgagattgttgaaaccaggtgaa attggtttgacttctatgtgtatcggt agtggtatgggtgctgcctccatattg attaaggaatag (SEQ ID NO: 32) 3-oxoadipyl- Candida POT2 1233 ATGTCATCCAAACAA TTCTCTAACCAAAAC atgtcatccaaacaacaatacttgaag CoA thiolase albicans CAATACTTGAAGAAG AGAAGCAGCACC aagaatcctgacgatgtcgttgtcgtt SC5314 (SEQ ID NO: 23) (SEQ ID NO: 34) gcagcatacagaactgctttaaccaaa ggtggaagaggtggattcaaagatgtt ggatctgatttccttttgaaaaaaatt gactgaagaatttgttaaaaaaactgg tgttgaccctaaaatcattcaagatgc tgccattggtaatgtcttgaacagaag agctggtgatttcgaacatagaggtgc attattatctgctggattaccttattc agttccatttgttgcccttaacagaca atgttcatctgggttaatggccatttc tcaagtggccaacaagatcaagactgg tgaaattgaatgtggtttagctggtgg tgttgaaagtatgacaaaaaactatgg tccagaagcattgattgctattgaccc tgcttatgaaaaagacccagaatttgt taaaaacggtattccaatgggtattac taatgaaaatgtttgtgccaaattcaa tatttcaagagatgttcaagatcaatt tgctgctgaatcttatcaaaaagctga aaaggcacaaaaagaaggtaaatttga tgatgaaattttaccaattgaagtttt ccaagaagatgaagatgctgaagatga agacgaagatgaagatgaagatgctga accaaaagaaaaattggttgttattag taaagatgaaggtattagaccaggtgt tactaaagaaaaattggctaaaattaa accagctttcaaatctgatggtgtatc ttcagctggtaactcttcacaagtttc cgatggtgctgccttggtgttattgat gaaacgttcatttgctgaaaagaatgg attcaaaccattggctaaatacatttc ttgtggtgttgctggtgtcccaccaga aattatgggtattggtccagctgttgc cattccaaaagttttgaaacaaactgg attatcagtcagtgatattgatattta tgaaatcaatgaagcatttgccggtca atgtttgtactcaattgaaagttgtaa tattccaagagaaaaagtcaatcttaa tgggggtgctattgccttgggtcaccc tcttggttgtactggtgctagacaata cgctactattttaagattgttaaaacc aggtgaatttggtgtgacttctatgtg tattggtactggtatgggtgctgcttc tgttttggttagagaataa (SEQ ID NO: 35) beta- Pseudomonas pcaF 1206 ATGAGCCGCGAGGTA GACCCGCTCGATGGC atgagccgcgaggtattcatctgcgat ketoadipyl aeruginosa TTCATCTG CAG gccgtgcgcacgccgatcggccgtttc CoA thiolase PAO1 (SEQ ID NO: 36) (SEQ ID NO: 37) ggcggcagtctttccgcggtgcgcgcc pcaF gacgacctcgcggcggtgccgctgaag gccctggtcgagcgcaacccgggggtc gactggtcggcgttggacgaggtgttc ctcggctgcgccaaccaggccggcgag gacaaccgtaacgtggcgcgcatggcg ctgctgctggccggtttgccggagagc gtgcccggcgtcaccctcaaccgcctc tgcgcctcggggatggacgccatcggc acggcgttccgcgccatcgcctgcggc gagatggagctggccatcgccggcggc gtcgagtcgatgtcgcgcgcgccgtac gtgatgggcaaggccgatagcgccttc ggtcgcggccagaagatcgaggacacc accatcggctggcgcttcgtcaatccg ctgatgaaggagcagtacggcatcgac ccgatgccgcagaccgccgacaacgtc gccgacgactatcgcgtgtcgcgtgcc gaccaggatgccttcgccctgcgcagc cagcagcgcgccggcagggcgcaggag gccggtttcttcgccgaggaaatcgtc ccggtgacgattcgcgggcgcaagggc gacaccctggtcgagcacgacgagcat ccgcgtcccgacaccaccctggaggcg ctggcccggctcaagccggtcaacggg ccggagaagaccgtcaccgccggcaac gcgtccggggtcaacgacggcgccgcc gcgctggtcctggcctccgccgaggca gtggagaagcacggcctgactccgcgc gcgcgggtgctgggcatggccagcgcc ggcgtcgccccacggatcatgggcatc ggcccggtgccggcggtgcgcaagctg ctgcggcgcctggacctggcgatcgac gccttcgacgtgatcgaactcaacgaa gccttcgccagccagggcctggcctgc ctgcgcgaactgggcgtggccgacgac agtgagaaggtcaacccgaacggcggt gccatcgccctcggccacccgctgggg atgagcggtgcgcggctggtcctcacc gcgctccatcaacttgagaagagcggc ggccggcgcggcctggcgaccatgtgc gtaggcgtcggccaaggcctggcgctg gccatcgagcgggtctga (SEQ ID NO: 38) acyl-CoA Pseudomonas bkt 1206 ATGCTCGATGCCTAT TCGGCAGCGCTCGAT atgctcgatgcctatatctacgccggc thiolase aeruginosa ATCTACGCC CAC ctgcgtacgcctttcggccggcatgcc PAO1 (SEQ ID NO: 39) (SEQ ID NO: 40) ggtgcactctcgacggtgcgtccggac gacctggccggcctgctgctggcgcgt ctcgcggaaacctccgggttcgccgtc gacgacctggaggatgtgatcctcggt tgcaccaaccaggccggcgaagacagc cgcaacctggcgcgcaacgcgctgctc gcagccggcctgccggcgcggctgccc gggcagacggtcaaccgcttgtgtgcc agcggactgtcggcggtgatcgacgcg gcgcgcgcgatcagttgcggtgagggc cggctgtacctggccggcggcgccgaa agcatgtcccgggcgccgttcgtcatg ggcaaggcggagagcgccttcagccgc acgctggaggtcttcgacagcaccatc ggcgcgcgcttcgccaaccccaggctg gtcgagcgctatggcaacgacagcatg ccggagaccggcgacaacgtggcccgc gccttcggcatcgcccgcgaagacgcc gaccgtttcgccgcttcttcccaggcg cgctaccaggctgcgctggaggagggc tttttcctcggcgagatccttccggtg gaggtgcgtgccggacgcaagggcgag acgcggctggtggagcgcgacgagcat ccgcgaccgcaggccgacctggcggcc ctggcgcgcttgccggcgttgttcgcc ggtggggtagtgaccgccggtaatgcg tctgggatcaacgacggggcggcggta gtgctgctgggcagtcgcgcgatcggc gagcgcgagggcatccggccgttggcg cggatcctcgccagcgccagcgtcggc gtcgagccccggttgatgggcatcggc ccgcagcaggcgatcctccgcgcgctg caacgcgccggcatcgacctggacgag gtcggcctgatcgagatcaacgaagcc ttcgcgccgcaggtcctggcctgcctg aagttgctcggcctggactacgaggac ccgcgggtcaatccccatggcggcgcc attgccctcggccatccgctcggcgcc tccggtgcgcgcctggtgctcaccgcc gcccgcgggctgcaacgcatcgagcgg cgctacgcggtggtcagcctgtgcgtc gggctcggccagggcgtggcgatggtg atcgagcgctgccgatga (SEQ ID NO: 41) 3-oxoadipyl- Pseudomonas pcaF 1203 ATGCACGACGTATTC AACCCGCTCGATGGC atgcacgacgtattcatctgtgacgcc CoA thiolase putida ATCTGTGACG CAAC atccgtaccccgatcggccgcttcggc (KT2440) (SEQ ID NO: 42) (SEQ ID NO: 43) ggcgccctggccagcgtgcgggccgac gacctggccgccgtgccgctgaaggcg ctgatcgagcgcaaccctggcgtgcag tgggaccaggtagacgaagtgttcttc ggctgcgccaaccaggccggtgaagac aaccgcaacgtggcccgcatggcactg ctgctggccggcctgccggaaagcatc ccgggcgtcaccctgaaccgtctgtgc gcgtcgggcatggatgccgtcggcacc gcgttccgcgccatcgccagcggcgag atggagctggtgattgccggtggcgtc gagtcgatgtcgcgcgccccgttcgtc atgggcaaggctgaaagcgcctattcg cgcaacatgaagctggaagacaccacc attggctggcgtttcatcaacccgctg atgaagagccagtacggtgtggattcc atgccggaaaccgccgacaacgtggcc gacgactatcaggtttcgcgtgctgat caggacgctttcgccctgcgcagccag cagaaggctgccgctgcgcaggctgcc ggcttctttgccgaagaaatcgtgccg gtgcgtatcgctcacaagaagggcgaa atcatcgtcgaacgtgacgaacacctg cgcccggaaaccacgctggaggcgctg accaagctcaaaccggtcaacggcccg gacaagacggtcaccgccggcaacgcc tcgggcgtgaacgacggtgctgcggcg atgatcctggcctcggccgcagcggtg aagaaacacggcctgactccgcgtgcc cgcgttctgggcatggccagcggcggc gttgcgccacgtgtcatgggcattggc ccggtgccggcggtgcgcaaactgacc gagcgtctggggatagcggtaagtgat ttcgacgtgatcgagcttaacgaagcg tttgccagccaaggcctggcggtgctg cgtgagctgggtgtggctgacgatgcg ccccaggtaaaccctaatggcggtgcc attgccctgggccaccccctgggcatg agcggtgcacgcctggtactgactgcg ttgcaccagctggagaagagtggcggt cgcaagggcctggcgaccatgtgtgtg ggtgtcggccaaggtctggcgttggcc atcgagcgggtttga (SEQ ID NO: 44) 3-oxoadipyl- Burkholderia bkt 1203 ATGACCGACGCCTAC CACGCGTTCGATCGC atgaccgacgcctacatctgcgatgcg CoA thiolase ambifaria AMMD ATCTGCG GATC attcgcacacccatcggccgctacggc (SEQ ID NO: 45) (SEQ ID NO: 46) ggcgccctgaaagacgttcgtgccgac gatctcggcgcggtgccgctcaaggcg ctgatcgaacgcaaccggaacgtcgac tggtcggcgatcgacgacgtgatctat ggctgcgcgaaccaggccggcgaagac aaccgcaacgtcgcgcgcatgtccgcg ctgctcgcgggcttgccgaccgccgtg ccgggcacgacgctgaaccggttatgc ggctcgggcatggacgccgtcggcacg gccgcgcgcgcgatcaaggcgggcgag gcacgcttgatgatcgcgggcggcgtc gaaagcatgacgcgcgcgccgttcgtg atgggcaaggccgccagcgcattcgcg ccaggctgcgattttcgacacgacgat cggctggcgtttcattaatccgctgat gaaacagcaatacggcgtcgattcgat gcccgagacggccgagaacgtcgcggt cgactacaacatcagccgcgccgacca ggatctattcgcgctgcgcagccagca gaaggccgcgcgtgcgcagcaggacgg cacgctcgccgccgaaatcgtccccgt cacgattgcgcagaaaaaaggcgacgc gctcgtcgtatcgctgacgagcatccg cgcgaaacatcgctcgaagcgctcgcg aagctgaagggcgtcgtgcgtcccgac ggctcggtcacggccggcaacgcgtca ggcgtcaacgacggcgcatgcgcactg ctgctcgccaacgcggaagccgccgat caatatgggctgcgccgccgcgcgcgt gtcgtcggcatggcgagcgccggcgtc gagccgcgcgtgatgggtatcggcccg gcgccggccacgcagaaactgttgcgc cagctcggcatgacgatcgaccagttc gacgtgatcgagctgaacgaagcgttc gcgtcgcagggtctcgcggtgctgcgc atgctcggtgtcgccgacgacgatccg cgcgtgaaccccaacggcggtgcgatc gcgctcggccatccgctcggcgcatcg ggtgcgcggctcgtgaccacggcgctt caccaactcgagcgtacgggcggccgc tttgcgctctgtacgatgtgcatcggc gtcggccagggcatcgcgatcgcgatc gaacgcgtgtaa (SEQ ID NO: 47) beta- Ascaris suum kbt 1242 ATGGCCACCTCAAGA CAATTTCTCGATGAC gtgatggccacctcaagacttgtctgc ketothiolase CTTGTCTGC CATTCCACC agcaatttaacgaagcaatgctttacg (SEQ ID NO: 48) (SEQ ID NO: 49) atctcgtcacgtgctgctagccaattt accgatgtggtattcgtgggtgccgca cgaacaccggtcggatcgtttcgctct tcgctttccactgttccagccactgtc ctcggagctgaggctattaagggtgca cttaaacatgccaatctaaaaccctca caagtgcaagaggtgttctttggctgt gtcgttccatccaactgtggacaagtt cctgcccgtcaagcgacacttggagct ggatgcgatccttcgacaatcgttaca actctcaataaattgtgcgcctcggga atgaagtcgattgcttgtgccgcctca cttttgcaacttggtcttcaagaggtt accgttggtggcggtatggagagcatg agcttagtgccgtactatcttgaacgt ggtgaaactacttatggtggaatgaag ctcatcgacggtatcccaagagatggt ccgactgatgcatatagtaatcaactt atgggtgcatgcgctgataatgtggct aaacgattcaacatcacccgtgaggaa caggataaattcgctattgaaagctat aaacgatctgctgctgcatgggagagt ggagcatgcaaagctgaagtagttcct attgaagtgacaaagggcaagaaaaca tacattgtcaacaaggatgaggaatac atcaaagtcaacttcgagaagcttccc aaactgaaacccgccttcttgaaagac ggaaccatcacggctggcaatgcttca acactgaacgatggtgctgcggcagtt gtgatgacgactgtcgaaggagcgaaa aaatacggtgtgaaaccattggcccga ttgctctcatatggtgatgcggcaaca aatccagtcgattttgctattgcacca tcaaggttatcccaaaggtacttaaat tggctaatctcgagatcaaggatattg atttgtgggaaatcaacgaggctttcg ccgttgttccccttcattcaatgaaga cactcggtatcgatcactcgaaagtga acattcatggtggtggcgtatctcttg gacatcctattggaatgtctggagctc gaattatcgttcatctgattcatgcgt tgaaacctggccagaaaggctgcgctg caatctgcaatggtggcggtggcgctg gtggaatggtcatcgagaaattgtaa (SEQ ID NO: 50)

The genes were expressed in E. coli and the proteins purified using Ni-NTA spin columns and quantified. To assay enzyme activity in vitro, a 5× CoA:DTNB (Ellman's reagent or 5,5′-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid)) mixture was prepared. The mixture consisted of 10 mM succinyl-CoA, 5 mM acetyl-CoA, 30 mM DTNB in 100 mM Tris buffer, pH 7.4. Five μL of the CoA:DTNB mixture was added to 0.5 μM purified thiolase enzyme in 100 mM Tris buffer, pH 7.8 in a final volume of 50 μL. The reaction was incubated at 30° C. for 30 minutes, then quenched with 2.5 μL 10% formic acid and samples frozen at −20° C. until ready for analysis by LC/MS. Because many thiolases can condense two acetyl-CoA molecules into acetoaceytl-CoA, production of acetoacetyl-CoA was examined. FIG. 19 shows that 3 thiolases demonstrated thiolase activity which resulted in acetoacetyl-CoA formation. These were fadAx from Pseudomonas putida, thiA from Clostridium acetobutylicum and thiB also from Clostridium acetobutylicum. When enzyme assays were examined for condensation of succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA into β-ketoadipyl-CoA, several candidates demonstrated the desired activity; paaJ from Escherichia coli (Nogales et al., Microbiol. 153:357-365 (2007)), phaD from Pseudomonas putida (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)), bkt from Burkholderia ambifaria AMMD, pcaF from Pseudomonas putida KT2440 (Harwood et al., J. Bacteria 176:6479-6488 (1994)), and pcaF from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. There was excellent specificity between the thiolases. Those that generated significant amounts of β-ketoadipyl-CoA did not produce significant amounts of acetoacetyl-CoA and likewise those that made acetoacetyl-CoA did not make detectable amounts of β-ketoadipyl-CoA.

EXAMPLE XXIV Pathways for Production of Hexamethylenediamine from Glutamate, Glutaryl-CoA or Pyruvate and 4-Aminobutanal

This example describes exemplary pathways for production of hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) from glutamate, glutaryl-CoA, pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal, or 2-amino-7-oxosubarate through homolysine, the seven-carbon analog of lysine. Homolysine is an attractive precursor to HMDA. Although homolysine is a potentially valuable precursor, it is not a known metabolic intermediate of any organism. Homolysine can be formed biocatalytically from the central metabolic precursors glutamate, glutaryl-CoA or pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal. Subsequent decarboxylation of homolysine by an enzyme analogous to lysine decarboxylase yields HMDA.

This example describes additional pathways that proceed from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, or pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal through the intermediate 6-aminohexanal. 6-Aminohexanal can readily be converted to HMDA by an aminotransferase or an aminating oxidoreductase.

The maximum theoretical yield of HMDA is 0.71 moles per mole glucose utilized (0.46 g/g). The pathways disclosed in FIGS. 20-22 and 26 achieve a maximum HMDA yield of 0.67 mol/mol (0.43 g/g). C₆H₁₂O₆+1.41NH₄→0.71C₆H₁₈N₂+1.76CO₂+2.47H₂O

Novel pathways for producing hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) and related products are described herein. The candidate enzymes, and associated risks of implementation are discussed in Example XXVI below.

This invention is directed, in part, to non-naturally occurring microorganisms that express genes encoding enzymes that catalyze HMDA production. Successfully engineering these pathways entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing the expression of these genes in the production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation.

HMDA can be produced from glutamate via glutaryl-CoA in eight enzymatic steps, shown in FIG. 20. In this route, glutamate is acylated to glutamyl-CoA by a CoA transferase or ligase (Step A of FIG. 20). Glutamyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA are joined by a beta-ketothiolase to form the C7 compound 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA (Step B of FIG. 20). The 3-oxo group of this product is then reduced and dehydrated, resulting in 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA (Steps C and D of FIG. 20). An enoyl-CoA reductase reduces the double bond, forming 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA (Step E of FIG. 20). 6-Aminopimeloyl-CoA is then converted to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate by a CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (Step F). Transamination of the aldehyde to an amine yields homolysine (Step G of FIG. 20). Finally, HMDA is formed as the decarboxylation product of homolysine (Step H of FIG. 20). The maximum theoretical HMDA yield for this pathway is 0.67 moles of HMDA per mole of glucose utilized. Yield calculations assume aerobic conditions and the utilization of a CoA transferase in Step A.

HMDA can also be produced from glutaryl-CoA by several routes. Exemplary routes for HMDA production are shown in FIG. 21. Glutaryl-CoA is a common metabolic intermediate in organisms that metabolize aromatic compounds. In the disclosed pathways to HMDA, glutaryl-CoA is first condensed with acetyl-CoA by a beta-ketothiolase to form 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA (Step A of FIG. 21). The CoA moiety of 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA is removed by a CoA hydrolase, transferase and ligase (Step B of FIG. 21). Several alternate routes for converting 3-oxopimelate to HMDA are outlined in FIG. 21 and described herein. The final step of all routes to HMDA entails decarboxylation of homolysine (Step S of FIG. 21).

One route entails conversion of 3-oxopimelate to 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal. This conversion can be catalyzed by an ATP— and NAD(P)H dependent enzyme with 3-oxopimelate reductase activity (Step C of FIG. 21), or alternately can proceed through activated intermediates 5-oxopimeloyl-CoA (Steps H, I of FIG. 21) or 5-oxopimeloyl-phosphonate (Steps F, G of FIG. 21). Once formed, 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal is transaminated at the 3-position (Step AB of FIG. 21) or 7-position (Step D of FIG. 21). Subsequent transamination of 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate (Step E of FIG. 21) or 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (Step Z of FIG. 21) yields 3,7-diaminoheptanoate. An enzyme with 3,7-diaminoheptanoate 2,3-aminomutase activity then forms homolysine (Step R of FIG. 21), which is decarboxylated to HMDA (Step S of FIG. 21).

In an alternate route, 3-oxopimelate is transaminated to 3-aminopimelate (Step J of FIG. 21). 3-Aminopimelate is then converted to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate directly (Step O of FIG. 21) or via a CoA (Steps K, L of FIG. 21) or phosphonic acid (Steps M, N of FIG. 21) intermediate. 3-Amino-7-oxoheptanoate is subsequently converted to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate by a 2,3-aminomutase (Step P of FIG. 21). 2-Amino-7-oxoheptanoate is converted to homolysine by an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase. Alternately, 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate is first transaminated (Step Z of FIG. 21) and then converted to homolysine by an aminomutase (Step R of FIG. 21).

3-Aminopimelate can be converted to 2-aminopimelate by a 2,3-aminomutase enzyme (Step T of FIG. 21). An HMDA pathway involving this intermediate requires reduction of the 7-carboxylic acid to an aldehyde. This reduction is catalyzed by a bifunctional reductase (Step W of FIG. 21) or by two enzymes that proceed through a CoA (Steps V, Y of FIG. 21) or phosphonic acid (Steps U, X of FIG. 21) intermediate. The product, 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate is converted to HMDA as described above.

Two routes for producing HMDA from pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal are shown in FIG. 22. The routes achieve a maximum yield of 0.67 moles of HMDA per mole glucose utilized (0.43 g/g) under anaerobic and aerobic conditions. 4-Aminobutanal is naturally derived from ornithine by decarboxylation to putrescine and subsequent transamination. 4-Aminobutanal can also originate from 4-aminobutanoate. In one pathway, 4-aminobutanal and pyruvate are joined by aldol condensation to form 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate (Step A of FIG. 22). The condensation product is subsequently dehydrated (Step B of FIG. 22) and reduced (Step C of FIG. 22). Transamination of 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate yields homolysine (Step D of FIG. 22). HMDA is the decarboxylation product of homolysine decarboxylase (Step E of FIG. 22). Alternately, pathway intermediate 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate is decarboxylated to form 6-aminohexanal (Step F of FIG. 22). 6-Aminohexanal is subsequently converted to HMDA by an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase (Step G of FIG. 22).

Several routes for producing HMDA from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate are shown in FIG. 26. 2-Amino-7-oxosubarate is not known to be a naturally occurring metabolite. An exemplary route for synthesizing 2-amino-7-oxosubarate is shown in FIG. 27. The pathway originates with glutamate-5-semialdehyde, a metabolite naturally formed during ornithine biosynthesis. 2-Amino-7-oxosubarate is then synthesized in three enzymatic steps. In the first step, glutamate-5-semialdehyde is condensed with pyruvate by an aldolase (FIG. 27, Step A). The product, 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate is subsequently dehydrated and the resulting alkene is reduced to form 2-amino-7-oxosubarate (FIG. 27, Steps B/C). In one proposed pathway to HMDA from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate, the 2-oxo acid is first decarboxylated to form 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (Step A of FIG. 26). This product is again decarboxylated, forming 6-aminohexanal (Step B of FIG. 26). Finally, 6-aminohexanal is converted to HMDA by an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase (Step C of FIG. 26).

Alternately, the intermediate 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate is first converted to homolysine by an aminotransferase or aminating oxidoreductase (Step M of FIG. 26). Homolysine is decarboxylated to HMDA as described previously (Step H of FIG. 26).

In yet another route, the 2-amino acid group of 2-amino-7-oxosubarate is decarboxylated, yielding 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate (Step I of FIG. 26). This product can then be further decarboxylated to 6-aminohexanal (Step G of FIG. 26) or transaminated to homolysine (Step J of FIG. 26). Homolysine or 6-aminohexanal is then converted to HMDA as described previously.

In yet another route, the 2-oxo group of 2-amino-7-oxosubarate is converted to an amino group, forming 2,7-diaminosubarate (Step K of FIG. 26). Two subsequent decarboxylations yield HMDA (Steps L, H of FIG. 26).

Described herein is the generation of a microbial organism that has been engineered to produce HMDA from pyruvate and 4-aminobutanal, as shown in FIG. 22 (Steps A-E). This example also teaches a method for engineering a strain that overproduces HMDA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer a HMDA-producing pathway as shown in FIG. 22. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing HMDA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic, microaerobic or aerobic conditions.

An E. coli strain is engineered to produce HMDA from 4-aminobutanal via the route outlined in FIG. 22. For the first stage of pathway construction, genes encoding enzymes to transform 4-aminobutanal and pyruvate to homolysine (FIG. 3, Steps A-D) are assembled onto vectors. In particular, the genes hpcH (CAA87759), hpcG (CAA57202), enr (YP 430895) and lysN ( ) genes encoding 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate aldolase, 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate dehydratase, 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate reductase and 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate aminotransferase, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany), under the control of the PA1/lacO promoter. The plasmid is transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for HMDA synthesis from 4-aminobutanal. E. coli naturally encodes two lysine decarboxylase enzymes which convert homolysine to HMDA.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of HMDA pathway genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA and immunoblotting. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individually activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce HMDA through this pathway is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional HMDA synthesis pathway from 4-aminobutanal are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

After successful demonstration of enhanced HMDA production via the activities of the exogenous enzymes, the genes encoding these enzymes are inserted into the chromosome of a wild type E. coli host using methods known in the art. Such methods include, for example, sequential single crossover (Gay et al., J. Bacteriol. 3:153 (1983)). and Red/ET methods from GeneBridges (Zhang et al., European Patent Application No. 01117 (2001))). Chromosomal insertion provides several advantages over a plasmid-based system, including greater stability and the ability to co-localize expression of pathway genes.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of HMDA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of HMDA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate intermediate or the HMDA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the HMDA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of HMDA, the above HMDA pathway-containing organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing culture vessel (e.g., flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap). Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of 7 by addition of an acid, such as H2SO4. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu) with an HPX-087 column (BioRad), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids, Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng., 775-779 (2005).

EXAMPLE XXV Pathways for Production of 6-Aminocaproate from Glutamate, Glutaryl-CoA,Homolysine, or 2-Amino-7-oxosubarate

Novel pathways for producing 6-aminocaproate (6-ACA) and related products are described herein. The candidate enzymes, and associated risks of implementation are discussed in Example XXVI below.

This invention is directed, in part, to non-naturally occurring microorganisms that express genes encoding enzymes that catalyze 6-ACA production. Successfully engineering these pathways entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing the expression of these genes in the production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation.

6-ACA can be produced from glutamate as a starting molecule. Glutamate is transformed to 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA as described previously (FIG. 20, Steps A-E). Removal of the CoA moiety of 6-Aminopimeloyl-CoA by a CoA hydrolase, transferase or ligase yields 2-aminopimelate (Step I of FIG. 20). Decarboxylation of this product yields 6-ACA (Step J of FIG. 20).

6-ACA can also be produced from glutaryl-CoA as a starting molecule. In the disclosed pathway to 6-ACA, similar to the HMDA pathway described above, glutaryl-CoA is first condensed with acetyl-CoA by a beta-ketothiolase to form 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA (Step A of FIG. 21). The CoA moiety of 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA is removed by a CoA hydrolase, transferase and ligase (Step B of FIG. 21). Then 3-oxopimelate is transaminated to 3-aminopimelate (Step J of FIG. 21). 3-Aminopimelate can be converted to 2-aminopimelate by a 2,3-aminomutase enzyme (Step T of FIG. 21). Aminopimelate can then be decarboxylated to form 6-aminocaproic acid (Step AA of FIG. 21).

Homolysine is also an attractive precursor to 6-aminocaproate (6-ACA) production. Although homolysine is a potentially valuable precursor, it is not a known metabolic intermediate of any organism. Under aerobic conditions, oxidation of homolysine by a lysine 2-monooxygenase yields 6-aminohexanamide, which is readily hydrolyzed to 6-ACA in dilute acid or basic solution (FIG. 23).

6-ACA can also be produced from 2-amino-7-oxosubarate as a starting molecule (FIG. 26). 2-Amino-7-oxosubarate is not known to be a naturally occurring metabolite. An exemplary route for synthesizing 2-amino-7-oxosubarate is shown in FIG. 27. The pathway originates with glutamate-5-semialdehyde, a metabolite naturally formed during ornithine biosynthesis. 2-Amino-7-oxosubarate is then synthesized in three enzymatic steps. In the first step, glutamate-5-semialdehyde is condensed with pyruvate by an aldolase (FIG. 27, Step A). The product, 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate is subsequently dehydrated and the resulting alkene is reduced to form 2-amino-7-oxosubarate (FIG. 27, Steps B/C). In one proposed route, 2-amino-7-oxosubarate is decarboxylated to form 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (Step A of FIG. 26). The aldehyde of 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate is oxidized by an oxidoreductase to form 2-aminopimelate (Step D of FIG. 26). 6-ACA is the decarboxylation product of 2-aminopimelate (Step E of FIG. 26). Alternately, the 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate intermediate is decarboxylated to form 6-aminohexanal (Step B of FIG. 26), which is transaminated to 6-ACA (Step F of FIG. 26). In a third proposed route, the 2-amino acid group of 2-amino-7-oxosubarate is decarboxylated, yielding 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate (Step I of FIG. 26). This product can then be further decarboxylated to 6-aminohexanal (Step G of FIG. 26). Finally, 6-aminohexanal is transaminated to 6-ACA (Step F of FIG. 26).

EXAMPLE XXVI Enzyme Classification System for Production of Hexamethylenediamine and 6-Aminocaproic acid

This example describes the enzyme classification system for the exemplary pathways described in Examples XXIV and XXV for production of hexamethylenediamine or 6-aminocaproate.

All transformations depicted in FIGS. 20-23 and 26 fall into the general categories of transformations shown in Table 11. Below is described a number of biochemically characterized genes in each category. Specifically listed are genes that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations in FIGS. 20-23 and 26 when properly cloned and expressed.

Table 11 shows the enzyme types useful to convert common central metabolic intermediates into 6-aminocaproate and hexamethylenediamine. The first three digits of each label correspond to the first three Enzyme Commission number digits which denote the general type of transformation independent of substrate specificity.

TABLE 11 LABEL FUNCTION 1.1.1.a Oxidoreductase (oxo to alcohol) 1.13.12.a Monooxygenase (O₂ incorporating) 1.2.1.a Oxidoreductase (aldehyde to acid) 1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde) 1.2.1.d Oxidoreductase (phosphonate reductase) 1.2.1.e Acid reductase 1.3.1.a Oxidoreductase (alkene to alkane) 1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase (aminating) 2.3.1.b Acyltransferase (beta-ketothiolase) 2.6.1.a Aminotransferase 2.7.2.a Phosphotransferase (carboxy acceptor) 2.8.3.a Coenzyme-A transferase 3.1.2.a CoA hydrolase 4.1.1.a Carboxy-lyase 4.1.2.a Aldehyde-lyase 4.2.1.a Hydro-lyase 5.4.3.a Aminomutase 6.2.1.a Acid-thiol ligase

1.1.1.a Oxidoreductase (oxo to alcohol)—The reduction of 3-oxo-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA to 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA is catalyzed by a 3-oxoacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (FIG. 20, Step C). Such enzymes convert 3-oxoacyl-CoA molecules into 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA molecules and are often involved in fatty acid beta-oxidation or phenylacetate catabolism. For example, subunits of two fatty acid oxidation complexes in E. coli, encoded byfadB and fadJ, function as 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases (Binstock et al., Methods Enzymol. 71 Pt C:403-411 (1981)). Furthermore, the gene products encoded by phaC in Pseudomonas putida U (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 95:6419-6424 (1998)) and paaC in Pseudomonas fluorescens ST (Di Arch et al., Microbiol 188:117-125 (2007)) catalyze the reverse reaction of step B in FIG. 10, that is, the oxidation of 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA to form 3-oxoadipyl-CoA, during the catabolism of phenylacetate or styrene. Note that the reactions catalyzed by such enzymes are reversible. In addition, given the proximity in E. coli of paaH to other genes in the phenylacetate degradation operon (Nogales et al., Microbiology 153:357-365 (2007)) and the fact that paaH mutants cannot grow on phenylacetate (Ismail et al., Eur. J Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003)), it is expected that the E. coli paaH gene encodes a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism fadB 119811 P21177.2 Escherichia coli fadJ 3334437 P77399.1 Escherichia coli paaH 16129356 NP_415913.1 Escherichia coli phaC 26990000 NP_745425.1 Pseudomonas putida paaC 106636095 ABF82235.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens

Additional exemplary oxidoreductases capable of converting 3-oxoacyl-CoA molecules to their corresponding 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA molecules include 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenases. The enzyme from Clostridium acetobutylicum, encoded by hbd, has been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Youngleson et al., J Bacteriol. 171:6800-6807 (1989)). Additional gene candidates include Hbd1 (C-terminal domain) and Hbd2 (N-terminal domain) in Clostridium kluyveri (Hillmer et al., FEBS Lett. 21:351-354 (1972)) and HSD17B10 in Bos taurus (Wakil et al., J Biol. Chem. 207:631-638 (1954)). Yet other gene candidates demonstrated to reduce acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA are phbB from Zoogloea ramigera (Ploux et al., Eur. J Biochem. 174:177-182 (1988)) and phaB from Rhodobacter sphaeroides (Alber et al., Mol. Microbiol. 61:297-309 (2006)).) The former gene candidate is NADPH-dependent, its nucleotide sequence has been determined (Peoples et al., Mol. Microbiol. 3:349-357 (1989)) and the gene has been expressed in E. coli. Substrate specificity studies on the gene led to the conclusion that it could accept 3-oxopropionyl-CoA as an alternate substrate (Peoples et al., Mol. Microbiol. 3:349-357 (1989)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hbd 18266893 P52041.2 Clostridium acetobutylicum Hbd2 146348271 EDK34807.1 Clostridium kluyveri Hbd1 146345976 EDK32512.1 Clostridium kluyveri HSD17B10 3183024 O02691.3 Bos taurus phaB 77464321 YP_353825.1 Rhodobacter sphaeroides phbB 130017 P23238.1 Zoogloea ramigera

A number of similar enzymes have been found in other species of Clostridia and in Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hbd 15895965 NP_349314.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum hbd 20162442 AAM14586.1 Clostridium beijerinckii Msed_1423 146304189 YP_001191505 Metallosphaera sedula Msed_0399 146303184 YP_001190500 Metallosphaera sedula Msed_0389 146303174 YP_001190490 Metallosphaera sedula Msed_1993 146304741 YP_001192057 Metallosphaera sedula

1.13.12.a Monooxygenase (O₂ incorporating)—An O₂-incorporating monooxygenase is required to convert homolysine to 6-aminohexanamide (Step A of FIG. 23). The lysine 2-monooxygenase (EC 1.13.12.2) from Pseudomonas fluorescens reacts with homolysine as a substrate (Nakazawa et al., J Biol. Chem. 247:3439-3444 (1972)). The enzyme from P. putida has been characterized biochemically and the gene has been identified (Karyakin et al., Prikladnaya Biokhimiya i Mikrobiologiya 27:825-832 (1991)). Genes encoding lysine 2-monooxygenase enzymes in P. fluorescens (eval=0.0, 90% identity), Streptomyces coelicolor (eval=0.0, 58% identity), Rhodococcus jostii (eval=0.0, 56% identity) and others were identified by protein sequence homology to the P. putida enzyme.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism davB 193805882 BAG54787.1 Pseudomonas putida pfl_5670 68347255 AAY94861.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens SCO1454 7209214 CAB76876.1 Streptomyces coelicolor RHA1_ro03531 110820050 ABG95334.1 Rhodococcus jostii

1.2.1.a Oxidoreductase (aldehyde to acid) Two transformations in FIG. 26 require conversion of an aldehyde to an acid: conversion of 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 2-aminopimelate (Step D) and 6-aminohexanal to 6-aminocaproate (Step F). Such reactions are catalyzed by NAD(P)+-dependent oxidoreductases that convert aldehydes to acids in the EC class 1.2.1. A candidate enzyme is the NAD+-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.3). Two aldehyde dehydrogenases found in human liver, ALDH-1 and ALDH-2, have broad substrate ranges for a variety of aliphatic, aromatic and polycyclic aldehydes (Klyosov et al., Biochemistry 35:4457-4467 (1996)). Active ALDH-2 has been efficiently expressed in E. coli using the GroEL proteins as chaperonins (Lee et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 298:216-224 (2002)). The rat mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase also has a broad substrate range that includes the enoyl-aldehyde crotonaldehyde (Siew et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 176:638-649 (1976)). The E. coli gene astD also encodes an NAD+-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase that converts succinic semialdehyde to succinate (Kuznetsova et al., FEMS Microbiol Rev 29:263-279 (2005)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism ALDH-2 118504 P05091.2 Homo sapiens ALDH-2 14192933 NP_115792.1 Rattus norvegicus astD 3913108 P76217.1 Escherichia coli

1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde)—Reductive de-acylation of 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 21, Step I), 5-aminopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 21, Step L) and 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 21, Step Y) to their corresponding aldehydes is catalyzed by enzymes in the EC class 1.2.1. Exemplary acyl-CoA dehydrogenases that reduce an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde include the fatty acid acyl-CoA reductase enzymes of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus (Reiser et al., Journal of Bacteriology 179:2969-2975 (1997)) and Acinetobacter sp. M-1 (Ishige et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002)), and a CoA- and NADP-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene in Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996); and Sohling et al., J Bacteriol 178:871-80 (1996)). SucD of P. gingivalis is another succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Takahashi et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:4704-4710 (2000)). The enzyme acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp, encoded by bphG, is yet another as it has been demonstrated to oxidize and acylate acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde (Powlowski et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:377-385 (1993)). In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxidize the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Koo et al., Biotechnol Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism acr1 50086359 YP_047869.1 Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 1684886 AAC45217 Acinetobacter baylyi acr1 18857901 BAB85476.1 Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1 sucD 172046062 P38947.1 Clostridium kluyveri sucD 34540484 NP_904963.1 Porphyromonas gingivalis bphG 425213 BAA03892.1 Pseudomonas sp

An additional enzyme type that converts an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde is malonyl-CoA reductase which transforms malonyl-CoA to malonic semialdehyde. Malonyl-CoA reductase is a key enzyme in autotrophic carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle in thermoacidophilic archael bacteria (Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007); and Thauer et al., Science. 318:1732-1733 (2007)). The enzyme utilizes NADPH as a cofactor and has been characterized in Metallosphaera and Sulfolobus spp (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); and Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by Msed 0709 in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); and Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007)). A gene encoding a malonyl-CoA reductase from Sulfolobus tokodaii was cloned and heterologously expressed in E. coli (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006)). This enzyme has also been shown to catalyze the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde (WO/2007/141208). Although the aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality of these enzymes is similar to the bifunctional dehydrogenase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus, there is little sequence similarity. Both malonyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates have high sequence similarity to aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme catalyzing the reduction and concurrent dephosphorylation of aspartyl-4-phosphate to aspartate semialdehyde. Additional gene candidates can be found by sequence homology to proteins in other organisms including Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. Yet another candidate for CoA-acylating aldehyde dehydrogenase is the ald gene from Clostridium beijerinckii (Toth et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 65:4973-4980 (1999)). This enzyme has been reported to reduce acetyl-CoA and butyryl-CoA to their corresponding aldehydes. This gene is very similar to cutE that encodes acetaldehyde dehydrogenase of Salmonella typhimurium and E. coli (Toth et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 65:4973-4980 (1999)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism Msed_0709 146303492 YP_001190808.1 Metallosphaera sedula mcr 15922498 NP_378167.1 Sulfolobus tokodaii asd-2 15898958 NP_343563.1 Sulfolobus solfataricus Saci_2370 70608071 YP_256941.1 Sulfolobus acidocaldarius Ald 49473535 AAT66436 Clostridium beijerinckii eutE 687645 AAA80209 Salmonella typhimurium eutE 2498347 P77445 Escherichia coli

1.2.1.d Oxidoreductase (phosphonate reductase)—The reduction of a phosphonic acid to its corresponding aldehyde is catalyzed by an oxidoreductase in the EC class 1.2.1. Steps G, N and X in FIG. 21 require such an enzyme for the reduction of 5-oxopimeloyl-phosphonate, 5-aminopimeloylphosphonate and 6-aminopimeloylphosphonate to their corresponding aldehydes. These reactions are not catalyzed by known enzymes. A similar reaction is catalyzed by aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (ASD, EC 1.2.1.11): the NADPH-dependent reduction of 4-aspartyl phosphate to aspartate-4-semialdehyde. ASD participates in amino acid biosynthesis and recently has been studied as an antimicrobial target (Hadfield et al., Biochemistry 40:14475-14483 (2001)). The E. coli ASD structure has been solved (Hadfield et al., J Mol. Biol. 289:991-1002 (1999)) and the enzyme has been shown to accept the alternate substrate beta-3-methylaspartyl phosphate (Shames, et al., J Biol. Chem. 259:15331-15339 (1984)). The Haemophilus influenzae enzyme has been the subject of enzyme engineering studies to alter substrate binding affinities at the active site (Blanco et al., Crystallogr. 60:1388-1395 (2004)). Other ASD candidates are found in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Shafiani et al., J Appl Microbiol 98:832-838 (2005)), Methanococcus jannaschii Faehnle et al. J Mol. 353:1055-1068 (2005)) and the infectious microorganisms Vibrio cholera and Heliobacter pylori (Moore et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 25:189-194 (2002)). Acetylglutamylphosphate reductase (EC 1.2.1.38) is a related enzyme that naturally reduces acetylglutamylphosphate to acetylglutamate-5-semialdehyde. Genes encoding this enzyme are found in S. cerevisiae (Pauwels et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:1014-1024 (2003)), B. subtilis (O'Reilly et al., Microbiology 140 (Pt 5):1023-1025 (1994)) and other organisms.

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism asd 16131307 NP_417891.1 Escherichia coli asd 68249223 YP_248335.1 Haemophilus influenzae asd 1899206 AAB49996 Mycobacterium tuberculosis VC2036 15642038 NP_231670 Vibrio cholera asd 210135348 YP_002301787.1 Heliobacter pylori ARG5,6 6320913 NP_010992.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae argC 16078184 NP_389001.1 Bacillus subtilis

Other exemplary phosphonate reductase enzymes include glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase which converts glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into D-glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate (e.g., E. coli gapA (Branlant et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 150:61-66 (1985)).23)), N-acetyl-gamma-glutamyl-phosphate reductase which converts N-acetyl-L-glutamate-5-semialdehyde into N-acetyl-L-glutamyl-5-phosphate (e.g., E. coli argC (Parsot et al., Gene. 68:275-283 (1988)), and glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase which converts L-glutamate-5-semialdehyde into L-glutamyl-5-phospate (e.g., E. coli proA (Smith et al., J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984))). Genes encoding glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase enzymes from Salmonella typhimurium (Mahan et al., J Bacteriol. 156:1249-1262 (1983)) and Campylobacter jejuni (Louie et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 240:29-35 (1993)) were cloned and expressed in E. coli.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gapA 71159358 P0A9B2.2 Escherichia coli argC 16131796 NP_418393.1 Escherichia coli proA 16128229 NP_414778.1 Escherichia coli proA 16763704 NP_459319.1 Salmonella typhimurium proA 9087222 P53000.2 Campylobacter jejuni

1.2.1.e Acid reductase—Several transformations in FIG. 21 require the conversion of an acid to an aldehyde (FIG. 21, Steps C, O, W). Such a transformation is thermodynamically unfavorable and typically requires energy-rich cofactors and multiple enzymatic steps. For example, in butanol biosynthesis conversion of butyrate to butyraldehyde is catalyzed by activation of butyrate to its corresponding acyl-CoA by a CoA transferase or ligase, followed by reduction to butyraldehyde by a CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase. Alternately, an acid can be activated to an acyl-phosphate and subsequently reduced by a phosphate reductase. Direct conversion of the acid to aldehyde by a single enzyme is catalyzed by an enzyme in the 1.2.1 family. Exemplary enzymes that catalyze these transformations include carboxylic acid reductase, alpha-aminoadipate reductase and retinoic acid reductase.

Carboxylic acid reductase, found in Nocardia iowensis, catalyzes the magnesium, ATP and NADPH-dependent reduction of carboxylic acids to their corresponding aldehydes (Venkitasubramanian et al., J Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)). This enzyme, encoded by car, was cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Venkitasubramanian et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)). Expression of the npt gene product improved activity of the enzyme via post-transcriptional modification. The npt gene encodes a specific phosphopantetheine transferase (PPTase) that converts the inactive apo-enzyme to the active holo-enzyme. The natural substrate of this enzyme is vanillic acid and the enzyme exhibits broad acceptance of aromatic and aliphatic substrates (Venkitasubramanian et al. “Biocatalytic Reduction of Carboxylic Acids Mechanism and Applications” Chapter 15 in Biocatalysis in the Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Industries, ed. R. N. Patel, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Fla. (2006)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism car 40796035 AAR91681.1 Nocardia iowensis (sp. NRRL 5646) npt 114848891 ABI83656.1 Nocardia iowensis (sp. NRRL 5646)

An enzyme with similar characteristics, alpha-aminoadipate reductase (AAR, EC 1.2.1.31), participates in lysine biosynthesis pathways in some fungal species. This enzyme naturally reduces alpha-aminoadipate to alpha-aminoadipate semialdehyde. The carboxyl group is first activated through the ATP-dependent formation of an adenylate that is then reduced by NAD(P)H to yield the aldehyde and AMP. Like CAR, this enzyme utilizes magnesium and requires activation by a PPTase. Enzyme candidates for AARand its corresponding PPTase are found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Morris et al., Gene 98:141-145 (1991)), Candida albicans (Guo et al., Mol. Genet. Genomics 269:271-279 (2003)), and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Ford et al., Curr. Genet. 28:131-137 (1995)). The AAR from S. pombe exhibited significant activity when expressed in E. coli (Guo et al., Yeast 21:1279-1288 (2004)). The AAR from Penicillium chrysogenum accepts S-carboxymethyl-L-cysteine as an alternate substrate, but did not react with adipate, L-glutamate or diaminopimelate (Hijarrubia et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:8250-8256 (2003)). The gene encoding the P. chrysogenum PPTase has not been identified to date and no high-confidence hits were identified by sequence comparison homology searching. Directed evolution or other enzyme engineering methods may be required to enhance reactivity with the substrates in FIG. 21.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism LYS2 171867 AAA34747.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae LYS5 1708896 P50113.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae LYS2 2853226 AAC02241.1 Candida albicans LYS5 28136195 AAO26020.1 Candida albicans Lys1p 13124791 P40976.3 Schizosaccharomyces pombe Lys7p 1723561 Q10474.1 Schizosaccharomyces pombe Lys2 3282044 CAA74300.1 Penicillium chrysogenum

1.3.1.a Oxidoreductase (alkene to alkane)—Three transformations fall into the category of oxidoreductases that reduce an alkene to an alkane (EC 1.3.1.-). The conversion of 6-amino-7-carboxy-hept-2-enoyl-CoA to 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 20, Step E), 2-oxo-7-aminohept-3-onoate to 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate (FIG. 22, Step C) and 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-7-oxosubarate (FIG. 27, Step C) are catalyzed by a 2-enoate reductase. 2-Enoate reductase enzymes are known to catalyze the NAD(P)H-dependent reduction of a wide variety of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids and aldehydes (Rohdich, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). In the recently published genome sequence of C. kluyveri, 9 coding sequences for enoate reductases were reported, out of which one has been characterized (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 105:2128-2133 (2008)). The enr genes from both C. tyrobutyricum and M. thermoaceticum have been cloned and sequenced and show 59% identity to each other. The former gene is also found to have approximately 75% similarity to the characterized gene in C. kluyveri (Giesel et al., Arch. Microbiol. 135:51-57 (1983)). It has been reported based on these sequence results that enr is very similar to the dienoyl CoA reductase in E. coli (fadH) (Rohdich, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). The Moorella thermoacetica (formerly C. thermoaceticum) enr gene has also been expressed in a catalytically active form in E. coli (Ohdich, et al., J Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism enr 169405742 ACA54153.1 Clostridium botulinum A3 str enr 2765041 CAA71086.1 Clostridium tyrobutyricum enr 3402834 CAA76083.1 Clostridium kluyveri enr 83590886 YP_430895.1 Moorella thermoacetica fadH 16130976 NP_417552.1 Escherichia coli

Another candidate 2-enoate reductase is maleylacetate reductase (MAR), an enzyme catalyzing the reduction of 2-maleylacetate (4-oxohex-2-enedioate) to 3-oxoadipate. MAR enzymes naturally participate in aromatic degradation pathways (Camara et al., J. Bacteriol. (2009); Huang et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 72:7238-7245 (2006)); Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 177:320-325 (1995) and Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:6075-6081 (1993)). The enzyme activity was identified and characterized in Pseudomonas sp. strain B 13 (Kaschabek et al., J Bacteriol 177:320-325 (1995); and Kaschabek et al., J Bacteriol 175:6075-6081 (1993)), and the coding gene was cloned and sequenced (Kasberg et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:3801-3803 (1997)). Additional MAR gene candidates include cicE gene from Pseudomonas sp. strain B13 (Kasberg et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:3801-3803 (1997)), macA gene from Rhodococcus opacus (Seibert et al., J Bacteriol 180:3503-3508 (1998)), the macA gene from Ralstonia eutropha (also known as Cupriavidus necator) (Seibert et al., Microbiology 150:463-472 (2004)), tfdFII from Ralstonia eutropha (Seibert et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:6745-6754 (1993)) and NCgl112 in Corynebacterium glutamicum (Huang et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 72:7238-7245 (2006)). A MAR in Pseudomonas reinekei MT1, encoded by ccaD, was recently identified and the nucleotide sequence is available under the DBJ/EMBL GenBank accession number EF159980 (Camara et al., J. Bacteriol. (2009)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism clcE 3913241 O30847.1 Pseudomonas sp. strain B13 macA 7387876 O84992.1 Rhodococcus opacus macA 5916089 AAD55886 Cupriavidus necator tfdFII 1747424 AAC44727.1 Ralstonia eutropha JMP134 NCgl1112 19552383 NP_600385 Corynebacterium glutamicum ccaD 134133940 ABO61029.1 Pseudomonas reinekei MT1

Enoyl-CoA reductase enzymes are suitable enzymes for catalyzing the reduction of 6-amino-7-carboxyhept-2-enoyl-CoA to 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 20, Step E). One exemplary enoyl-CoA reductase is the gene product of bcd from C. acetobutylicum (Atsumi et al., Metab Eng. 10:305-311 (2008)); and Boynton et al., J Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)), which naturally catalyzes the reduction of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA. Activity of this enzyme can be enhanced by expressing bcd in conjunction with expression of the C. acetobutylicum etfAB genes, which encode an electron transfer flavoprotein. An additional candidate for the enoyl-CoA reductase step is the mitochondrial enoyl-CoA reductase from E. gracilis (Hoffmeister, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). A construct derived from this sequence following the removal of its mitochondrial targeting leader sequence was cloned in E. coli resulting in an active enzyme (Hoffmeister, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). This approach is well known to those skilled in the art of expressing eukaryotic genes, particularly those with leader sequences that may target the gene product to a specific intracellular compartment, in prokaryotic organisms. A close homolog of this gene, TDE0597 from the prokaryote Treponema denticola, represents a third enoyl-CoA reductase which has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Tucci et al., Febs Letters 581:1561-1566 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism bcd 15895968 NP_349317.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfA 15895966 NP_349315.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum etfB 15895967 NP_349316.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum TER 62287512 Q5EU90.1 Euglena gracilis TDE0597 42526113 NP_971211.1 Treponema denticola

Additional enoyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates are found in organisms that degrade aromatic compounds. Rhodopseudomonas palustris, a model organism for benzoate degradation, has the enzymatic capability to degrade pimelate via beta-oxidation of pimeloyl-CoA. Adjacent genes in the pim operon, pimC and pimD, bear sequence homology to C. acetobutylicum bcd and are predicted to encode a flavin-containing pimeloyl-CoA dehydrogenase (Harrison et al., Microbiology 151:727-736 (2005)). The genome of nitrogen-fixing soybean symbiont Bradyrhizobium japonicum also contains a pim operon composed of genes with high sequence similarity to pimC and pimD of R. palustris (Harrison et al., Microbiology 151:727-736 (2005)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pimC 39650632 CAE29155 Rhodopseudomonas palustris pimD 39650631 CAE29154 Rhodopseudomonas palustris pimC 27356102 BAC53083 Bradyrhizobium japonicum pimD 27356101 BAC53082 Bradyrhizobium japonicum

An additional candidate is 2-methyl-branched chain enoyl-CoA reductase (EC 1.3.1.52), an enzyme catalyzing the reduction of sterically hindered trans-enoyl-CoA substrates. This enzyme participates in branched-chain fatty acid synthesis in the nematode Ascarius suum and is capable of reducing a variety of linear and branched chain substrates including 2-methylbutanoyl-CoA, 2-methylpentanoyl-CoA, octanoyl-CoA and pentanoyl-CoA (Duran et al., J Biol. Chem. 268:22391-22396 (1993))). Two isoforms of the enzyme, encoded by genes acad1 and acad, have been characterized.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism acad1 2407655 AAC48316.1 Ascarius suum acad 347404 AAA16096.1 Ascarius suum

1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase (aminating)—Several reactions in FIGS. 20-23 require the conversion of ketones or aldehydes to amine groups. Such a transformation can be accomplished by aminating oxidoreductases in the EC class 1.4.1. Enzymes in this EC class catalyze the oxidative deamination of amino groups with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor, and the reactions are typically reversible.

In Step D of FIG. 22 the 2-oxoacid 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate is converted to homolysine, a molecule resembling an amino acid (FIG. 22, Step D; FIG. 26, Step J). The conversion of 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2,7-diaminosubarate (Step K of FIG. 26) is a similar transformation. Exemplary enzymes for catalyzing these reactions include glutamate dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.2), leucine dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.9), and aspartate dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.21). The gdhA gene product from Escherichia coli (Korber, et al., J Mol. Biol. 234:1270-1273. (1993)), gdh from Thermotoga maritime (Kort et al., Extremophiles 1:52-60. 1997); Lebbink et al., J Mol. Biol. 280:287-296 (1998) and Lebbink et al., J Mol. Biol. 289:357-369 (1999))), and gdhA1 from Halobacterium salinarum (Ingoldsby et al., Gene 349:237-244 (2005)) catalyze the reversible conversion of glutamate to 2-oxoglutarate and ammonia, while favoring NADP(H), NAD(H), or both, respectively. The ldh gene of Bacillus cereus encodes the LeuDH protein that has a wide of range of substrates including leucine, isoleucine, valine, and 2-aminobutanoate (Ansorge et al., Biotechnol Bioeng. 68:557-562 (2000)); and Stoyan et al., J Biotechnol 54:77-80 (1997)). The nadX gene from Thermotoga maritima encoding for the aspartate dehydrogenase is involved in the biosynthesis of NAD (Yang et al., J Biol. Chem. 278:8804-8808 (2003)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gdhA 118547 P00370 Escherichia coli gdh 6226595 P96110.4 Thermotoga maritima gdhA1 15789827 NP_279651.1 Halobacterium salinarum ldh 61222614 P0A393 Bacillus cereus nadX 15644391 NP_229443.1 Thermotoga maritima

Two reactions entail conversion of 3-oxoacids to 3-amino acids: 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate to 3,7-diaminoheptanoate (FIG. 21, Step E), 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate (FIG. 21, Step J) and 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (FIG. 21, Step AB). An enzyme that reacts with 3-oxoacids is 3,5-diaminohexanoate dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.11), an enzyme found in organisms that ferment lysine. The gene encoding this enzyme, kdd, was recently identified in Fusobacterium nucleatum (Kreimeyer et al., J Biol. Chem. 282:7191-7197 (2007)). The enzyme has been purified and characterized in other organisms (Baker et al., Chem. 247:7724-7734 (1972)); and Baker et al., Biochemistr. 13:292-299 (1974)) but the genes associated with these enzymes are not known. Candidates in Myxococcus xanthus, Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 and other sequenced organisms can be inferred by sequence homology.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism kdd 19713113 AAL93966.1 Fusobacterium nucleatum mxan_4391 108462082 ABF87267.1 Myxococcus xanthus pg_1069 34397119 AAQ66183.1 Porphyromonas gingivalis

The conversions of 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to homolysine (FIG. 20, Step G; FIG. 21, Step Q; FIG. 26, Step M), 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal to 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate (FIG. 21, Step D) 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 3,7-diaminoheptanoate (FIG. 21, Step Z) and 6-aminohexanal to HMDA (FIG. 26, Step C; FIG. 22, Step G) are catalyzed by aminating oxidoreductases that transform aldehydes to their corresponding primary amines. An enzyme that catalyzes a similar reaction is lysine 6-dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.18), encoded by the lysDH genes. This enzyme catalyzes the reversible oxidative deamination of the 6-amino group of L-lysine to form 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde (Misono et al., J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)). Exemplary enzyme candidates are found in Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Heydari et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 70:937-942 (2004)), Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Hashimoto et al., J Biochem 106:76-80 (1989); and Misono et al., J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)), and Achromobacter denitrificans (Ruldeekulthamrong et al., BMP Rep. 41:790-795 (2008)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism lysDH 13429872 BAB39707 Geobacillus stearothermophilus lysDH 15888285 NP_353966 Agrobacterium tumefaciens lysDH 74026644 AAZ94428 Achromobacter denitrificans

2.3.1.b Acyltransferase (beta-ketothiolase)—In Step A of FIG. 21, Glutaryl-CoA and acetyl-CoA are condensed to form 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA by oxopimeloyl-CoA:glutaryl-CoA acyltransferase, a beta-ketothiolase (EC 2.3.1.16). An enzyme catalyzing this transformation is found in Ralstonia eutropha (formerly known as Alcaligenes eutrophus), encoded by genes bktB and bktC (Haywood et al., FEMS Microbiology Letters 52:91-96 (1988); and Slater et al., J. Bacteriol. 180:1979-1987 (1998)). The sequence of the BktB protein is known; however, the sequence of the BktC protein has not been reported. The pim operon of Rhodopseudomonas palustris also encodes a beta-ketothiolase, encoded by pimB, predicted to catalyze this transformation in the degradative direction during benzoyl-CoA degradation (Harrison et al., Microbiology 151:727-736 (2005)). A beta-ketothiolase enzyme candidate in S. aciditrophicus was identified by sequence homology to bktB (43% identity, evalue=1e-93).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism bktB 11386745 YP_725948 Ralstonia eutropha pimB 39650633 CAE29156 Rhodopseudomonas palustris syn_02642 85860483 YP_462685.1 Syntrophus aciditrophicus

Beta-ketothiolase enzymes catalyzing the formation of beta-ketovalerate from acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA may also be able to catalyze the formation of 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA. Zoogloea ramigera possesses two ketothiolases that can form β-ketovaleryl-CoA from propionyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA and R. eutropha has a β-oxidation ketothiolase that is also capable of catalyzing this transformation (Gruys et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,958,745 (1999)). The sequences of these genes or their translated proteins have not been reported, but several candidates in R. eutropha, Z. ramigera, or other organisms can be identified based on sequence homology to bktB from R. eutropha. These include:

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism phaA 113867452 YP_725941.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_A1713 113867716 YP_726205.1 Ralstonia eutropha pcaF 116694155 YP_728366.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_B1369 116695312 YP_840888.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_A0170 113866201 YP_724690.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_A0462 113866491 YP_724980.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_A1528 113867539 YP_726028.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_B0381 116694334 YP_728545.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_B0662 116694613 YP_728824.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_B0759 116694710 YP_728921.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_B0668 116694619 YP_728830.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_A1720 113867723 YP_726212.1 Ralstonia eutropha h16_A1887 113867867 YP_726356.1 Ralstonia eutropha phbA 135759 P07097.4 Zoogloea ramigera bktB 194289475 YP_002005382.1 Cupriavidus taiwanensis Rmet_1362 94310304 YP_583514.1 Ralstonia metallidurans Bphy_0975 186475740 YP_001857210.1 Burkholderia phymatum

Additional candidates include beta-ketothiolases that are known to convert two molecules of acetyl-CoA into acetoacetyl-CoA (EC 2.1.3.9). Exemplary acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase enzymes include the gene products of atoB from E. coli (Martin et al., Nat. Biotechnol 21:796-802 (2003)), thlA and thlB from C. acetobutylicum (Hanai et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 73:7814-7818 (2007)); and Winzer et al., J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol 2:531-541 (2000)), and ERG10 from S. cerevisiae (Hiser, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:31383-31389 (1994)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism atoB 16130161 NP_416728 Escherichia coli thlA 15896127 NP_349476.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum thlB 15004782 NP_149242.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ERG10 6325229 NP_015297 Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Beta-ketoadipyl-CoA thiolase (EC 2.3.1.174), also called 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase, converts beta-ketoadipyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA, and is a key enzyme of the beta-ketoadipate pathway for aromatic compound degradation. The enzyme is widespread in soil bacteria and fungi including Pseudomonas putida (Harwood et al., J Bacteriol 176:6479-6488 (1994)) and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus (Doten et al., J. Bacteriol. 169:3168-3174 (1987)). The gene products encoded by pcaF in Pseudomonas strain B13 (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002)), phaD in Pseudomonas putida U (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 95:6419-6424 (1998)), paaE in Pseudomonas fluorescens ST (Di Arch et al., Microbiol 188:117-125 (2007)), and paaJ from E. coli (Nogales et al., Microbiology 153:357-365 (2007)) also catalyze this transformation. Several beta-ketothiolases exhibit significant and selective activities in the oxoadipyl-CoA forming direction including bkt from Pseudomonas putida, pcaF and bkt from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, bkt from Burkholderia ambifaria AMMD, paaJ from E. coli, and phaD from P. putida. These enzymes can also be employed for the synthesis of 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA, a compound structurally similar to 3-oxoadipyl-CoA.

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism paaJ 16129358 NP_415915.1 Escherichia coli pcaF 17736947 AAL02407 Pseudomonas knackmussii (B13) phaD 3253200 AAC24332.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaF 506695 AAA85138.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaF 141777 AAC37148.1 Acinetobacter calcoaceticus paaE 106636097 ABF82237.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens bkt 115360515 YP_777652.1 Burkholderia ambifaria AMMD bkt 9949744 AAG06977.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 pcaF 9946065 AAG03617.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1

A beta-ketothiolase is also required to condense glutamyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA (FIG. 20, Step B). This transformation is not known to occur naturally. The beta-ketothiolase candidates described above are also exemplary candidates for catalyzing this transformation.

2.6.1.a Aminotransferase—Several reactions in FIGS. 20-26 are catalyzed by aminotransferases in the EC class 2.6.1. Such enzymes reversibly transfer amino groups from aminated donors to acceptors such as pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate.

Aminotransferases selective for aldehydes are required for transaminating 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (FIG. 20, Step G; FIG. 21, Step Q; FIG. 26, Step M), 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal (FIG. 21, Step D) 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (FIG. 21, Step Z) and 6-aminohexanal (FIG. 26, Step C; FIG. 22, Step G). An exemplary enzyme for converting aldehydes to primary amines is lysine-6-aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.36). This enzyme function, converting lysine to alpha-aminoadipate semialdehyde, has been demonstrated in yeast and bacteria. Candidates from Candida utilis (Hammer et al., J Basic Microbiol 32:21-27 (1992)), Flavobacterium lutescens (Fujii et al., J Biochem. 128:391-397 (2000)) and Streptomyces clavuligenus (Romero et al., Microbiol Biotechnol 18:241-246 (1997)) have been characterized. A recombinant lysine-6-aminotransferase from S. clavuligenus was functionally expressed in E. coli (Tobin et al., J. Bacteriol. 173:6223-6229 (1991)). The F. lutescens enzyme is specific to alpha-ketoglutarate as the amino acceptor (Soda et al., Biochemistry 7:4110-4119 (1968)). Other enzymes which convert aldehydes to terminal amines include the dat gene product in Acinetobacter baumanii encoding 2,4-diaminobutanoate:2-ketoglutarate 4-transaminase (Ikai et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:5118-5125 (1997)). In addition to its natural substrate, 2,4-diaminobutyrate, DAT transaminates the terminal amines of lysine, 4-aminobutyrate and ornithine.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism lat 10336502 BAB13756.1 Flavobacterium lutescens lat 153343 AAA26777.1 Streptomyces clavuligenus dat 6685373 P56744.1 Acinetobacter baumanii

Additional enzyme candidates include putrescine aminotransferases or other diamine aminotransferases. The E. coli putrescine aminotransferase is encoded by the ygjG gene and the purified enzyme was also able to transaminate cadaverine and spermidine (Samsonova et al., Microbiol 3:2 (2003)). In addition, activity of this enzyme on 1,7-diaminoheptane and with amino acceptors other than 2-oxoglutarate (e.g., pyruvate, 2-oxobutanoate) has been reported (Kim et al., J Biol. Chem. 239:783-786 (1964); and Samsonova et al., Microbiol 3:2 (2003)). The spuC gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa encodes a putrescine aminotransferase with higher activity with pyruvate as the amino acceptor than alpha-ketoglutarate (Lu et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:3765-3773 (2002)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism ygjG 145698310 NP_417544 Escherichia coli spuC 9946143 AAG03688 Pseudomonas aeruginosa

The conversion of an aldehyde to a terminal amine can also be catalyzed by gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase (GABA transaminase). This enzyme naturally interconverts succinic semialdehyde and glutamate to 4-aminobutyrate and alpha-ketoglutarate and is known to have a broad substrate range (Liu et al., Biochemistry 43:10896-10905 (2004); and Schulz et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 56:1-6 (1990)). The two GABA transaminases in E. coli are encoded by gabT (Bartsch et al., J. Bacteriol. 172:7035-7042 (1990)) and puuE (Kurihara et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4602-4608 (2005)). GABA transaminases in Mus musculus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Sus scrofa have been shown to react with a range of alternate substrates including 6-aminocaproic acid (Cooper, Methods Enzymol. 113:80-82 (1985)); and Scott et al., J. Biol. Chem. 234:932-936 (1959)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism gabT 16130576 NP_417148.1 Escherichia coli puuE 16129263 NP_415818.1 Escherichia coli abat 37202121 NP_766549.2 Mus musculus gabT 70733692 YP_257332.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens abat 47523600 NP_999428.1 Sus scrofa

Enzymes that transaminate 3-oxoacids are required to convert 3-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate to 3,7-diaminoheptanoate (FIG. 21, Step E), 3-oxopimelate to 3-aminopimelate (FIG. 21, Step J) and 3-oxo-1-carboxyheptanal to 3-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (FIG. 21, Step AB). Enzymes catalyzing these exact transformations have not been identified to date. Beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferase (WO08027742) reacts with beta-alanine to form malonic semialdehyde, a 3-oxoacid. The gene product of SkPYD4 in Saccharomyces kluyveri was shown to preferentially use beta-alanine as the amino group donor (Andersen et al., Gene. 124:105-109 (1993)). SkUGA 1 encodes a homologue of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GABA aminotransferase, UGA1 (Ramos et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 149:401-404 (1985)), whereas SkPYD4 encodes an enzyme involved in both beta-alanine and GABA transamination (Andersen et al., Gene. 124:105-109 (1993)). 3-Amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase catalyzes the transformation from methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. The enzyme has been characterized in Rattus norvegicus and Sus scrofa and is encoded by Abat (Kakimoto et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 156:374-380 (1968); and Tamaki et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:376-389 (2000)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism SkyPYD4 98626772 ABF58893.1 Lachancea kluyveri SkUGA1 98626792 ABF58894.1 Lachancea kluyveri UGA1 6321456 NP_011533.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Abat 122065191 P50554.3 Rattus norvegicus Abat 120968 P80147.2 Sus scrofa

Several aminotransferases transaminate the amino groups of 2-oxo acids to form amino acids. Such an enzyme is required for the transamination of 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate to homolysine (FIG. 22, Step D; FIG. 26, Step M) and 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2,7-diaminosubarate (FIG. 26, Step K). A promising enzyme candidate is alpha-aminoadipate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.39), an enzyme that participates in lysine biosynthesis and degradation in some organisms. This enzyme interconverts 2-aminoadipate and 2-oxoadipate, using alpha-ketoglutarate as the amino acceptor. Gene candidates are found in Homo sapiens (Okuno et al., Enzyme Protein 47:136-148 (1993)) and Thermus thermophilus (Miyazaki et al., Microbiology 150:2327-2334 (2004)). The Thermus thermophilus enzyme, encoded by lysN, is active with several alternate substrates including oxaloacetate, 2-oxoisocaproate, 2-oxoisovalerate, and 2-oxo-3-methylvalerate.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism lysN 31096548 BAC76939.1 Thermus thermophilus AadAT-II 46395904 Q8N5Z0.2 Homo sapiens

Another candidate is aspartate aminotransferase, an enzyme that naturally transfers an oxo group from oxaloacetate to glutamate, forming alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Aspartate aminotransferase activity is catalyzed by, for example, the gene products of aspC from Escherichia coli (Yagi et al., FEBS Lett. 100:81-84 (1979); and Yagi et al., Methods Enzymol. 113:83-89 (1985)), AAT2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yagi et al., J Biochem. 92:35-43 (1982)) and ASPS from Arabidopsis thaliana (de la et al., Plant J46:414-425 (2006); Kwok et al., J Exp. Bot. 55:595-604 (2004) and Wilkie et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 12:381-389 (1998)). The enzyme from Rattus norvegicus has been shown to transaminate alternate substrates such as 2-aminohexanedioic acid and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (Recasens et al., Biochemistry 19:4583-4589 (1980)). Aminotransferases that work on other amino-acid substrates may also be able to catalyze this transformation. Valine aminotransferase catalyzes the conversion of valine and pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate and alanine. The E. coli gene, avtA, encodes one such enzyme (Whalen et al., J. Bacteriol. 150:739-746 (1982)). This gene product also catalyzes the transamination of α-ketobutyrate to generate α-aminobutyrate, although the amine donor in this reaction has not been identified (Whalen et al., J. Bacteriol. 158:571-574 (1984)). The gene product of the E. coli serC catalyzes two reactions, phosphoserine aminotransferase and phosphohydroxythreonine aminotransferase (Lam, J. et al., Bacteriol. 172:6518-6528 (1990)), and activity on non-phosphorylated substrates could not be detected (Drewke et al., FEES. Lett. 390:179-182 (1996)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism aspC 16128895 NP_415448.1 Escherichia coli AAT2 1703040 P23542.3 Saccharomyces cerevisiae ASP5 20532373 P46248.2 Arabidopsis thaliana Got2 112987 P00507 Rattus norvegicus avtA 49176374 YP_026231.1 Escherichia coli serC 16128874 NP_415427.1 Escherichia coli

2.7.2.a Phosphotransferase (carboxy acceptor)—Phosphotransferase enzymes in the EC class 2.7.2 transform carboxylic acids to phosphonic acids with concurrent hydrolysis of one ATP. Steps F, M and U in FIG. 21 require a phosphotransferase to activate the carboxyl groups of 3-oxopimelate (Step F), 3-aminopimelate (Step M) and 2-aminopimelate (Step U) to their corresponding phosphonic acids. Butyrate kinase (EC 2.7.2.7) carries out the reversible conversion of butyryl-phosphate to butyrate during acidogenesis in C. acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1576-1583 (1990)). This enzyme is encoded by either of the two buk gene products (Huang et al., J Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol 2:33-38 (2000)). Other butyrate kinase enzymes are found in C. butyricum and C. tetanomorphum (Twarog et al., J. Bacteriol. 86:112-117 (1963)). Related enzyme isobutyrate kinase from Thermotoga maritima has also been expressed in E. coli and crystallized (Diao et al., E. Biol. Crystallogr. 59:1100-1102 (2003); and Diao et al., J Bacteriol. 191:2521-2529 (2009)). Aspartokinase catalyzes the ATP-dependent phosphorylation of aspartate and participates in the synthesis of several amino acids. The aspartokinase III enzyme in E. coli, encoded by lysC, has a broad substrate range and the catalytic residues involved in substrate specificity have been elucidated (Keng et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 335:73-81 (1996)). Two additional kinases in E. coli are also good candidates: acetate kinase and gamma-glutamyl kinase. The E. coli acetate kinase, encoded by ackA (Skarstedt et al., J. Biol. Chem. 251:6775-6783 (1976)), phosphorylates propionate in addition to acetate (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)). The E. coli gamma-glutamyl kinase, encoded by proB (Smith et al., J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984)), phosphorylates the gamma carbonic acid group of glutamate.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism buk1 15896326 NP_349675 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk2 20137415 Q97II1 Clostridium acetobutylicum buk2 6685256 Q9X278.1 Thermotoga maritima lysC 16131850 NP_418448.1 Escherichia coli ackA 16130231 NP_416799.1 Escherichia coli proB 16128228 NP_414777.1 Escherichia coli

2.8.3.a Coenzyme-A transferase—CoA transferases catalyze the reversible transfer of a CoA moiety from one molecule to another. Several transformations in FIGS. 20 and 21 require a CoA transferase to activate carboxylic acids to their corresponding acyl-CoA derivatives (FIG. 20, Steps A and I; FIG. 21, Steps H, J, V). Candidate enzymes for catalyzing these transformations include the gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri which have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and butyryl-CoA transferase activity, respectively (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 105:2128-2133 (2008); and Sohling et al., J Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). Similar CoA transferase activities are also present in Trichomonas vaginalis (van Grinsven et al., J. Biol. Chem. 283:1411-1418 (2008)) and Trypanosoma brucei (Riviere et al., J. Biol. Chem. 279:45337-45346 (2004)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism cat1 729048 P38946.1 Clostridium kluyveri cat2 172046066 P38942.2 Clostridium kluyveri cat3 146349050 EDK35586.1 Clostridium kluyveri TVAG_395550 123975034 XP_001330176 Trichomonas vaginalis G3 Tb11.02.0290 71754875 XP_828352 Trypanosoma brucei

The glutaconyl-CoA-transferase (EC 2.8.3.12) enzyme from anaerobic bacterium Acidaminococcus fermentans reacts with glutaconyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)), substrates similar in structure to 2,3-dehydroadipyl-CoA. The genes encoding this enzyme are gctA and gctB. This enzyme has reduced but detectable activity with other CoA derivatives including glutaryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA, crotonyl-CoA and acrylyl-CoA (Buckel et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 118:315-321 (1981)). The enzyme has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Mack et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism gctA 559392 CAA57199.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans gctB 559393 CAA57200.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans

A CoA transferase that can utilize acetyl-CoA as the CoA donor is acetoacetyl-CoA transferase, encoded by the E. coli atoA (alpha subunit) and atoD (beta subunit) genes (Korolev et al., Biol. Crystallogr. 58:2116-2121 (2002); and Vanderwinkel et al., Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)). This enzyme has a broad substrate range (Sramek et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 171:14-26 (1975)) and has been shown to transfer the CoA moiety to acetate from a variety of branched and linear acyl-CoA substrates, including isobutyrate (Matthies et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992)), valerate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)) and butanoate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)). This enzyme is induced at the transcriptional level by acetoacetate, so modification of regulatory control may be necessary for engineering this enzyme into a pathway (Pauli et al., Eur. J Biochem. 29:553-562 (1972)). Similar enzymes exist in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 (Duncan et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:5186-5190 (2002)), Clostridium acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1576-1583 (1990); and Wiesenborn et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55:323-329 (1989)), and Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem 71:58-68 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism atoA 2492994 P76459.1 Escherichia coli atoD 2492990 P76458.1 Escherichia coli actA 62391407 YP_226809.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum cg0592 62389399 YP_224801.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum ctfA 15004866 NP_149326.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfB 15004867 NP_149327.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfA 31075384 AAP42564.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum ctfB 31075385 AAP42565.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum

The de-acylation 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA to 3-oxopimelate (FIG. 21, Step B) is catalyzed by a 3-oxoacid-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.6). Succcinyl-CoA:3-oxoacid-CoA transferase, also known as beta-ketoadipyl-CoA transferase, is encoded by pcal and pcaf in Pseudomonas putida (Kaschabek et al., J Bacteriol. 184:207-215 (2002)). Similar enzymes based on protein sequence homology exist in Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 (Kowalchuk et al., Gene 146:23-30 (1994)). Additional exemplary succinyl-CoA:3:oxoacid-CoA transferases are present in Helicobacter pylori (Corthesy-Theulaz et al., J Biol. Chem. 272:25659-25667 (1997)) and Bacillus subtilis (Stols et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 53:396-403 (2007)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pcaI 24985644 AAN69545.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaJ 26990657 NP_746082.1 Pseudomonas putida pcaI 50084858 YP_046368.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 pcaJ 141776 AAC37147.1 Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 pcaI 21224997 NP_630776.1 Streptomyces coelicolor pcaJ 21224996 NP_630775.1 Streptomyces coelicolor HPAG1_0676 108563101 YP_627417 Helicobacter pylori HPAG1_0677 108563102 YP_627418 Helicobacter pylori ScoA 16080950 NP_391778 Bacillus subtilis ScoB 16080949 NP_391777 Bacillus subtilis

3.1.2.a CoA hydrolase—The hydrolysis of 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA to 6-aminopimelate (FIG. 20, Step I) is carried out by an acyl CoA hydrolase enzyme in the 3.1.2 family. An enzyme catalyzing this transformation has not been demonstrated to date. Several eukaryotic acetyl-CoA hydrolases (EC 3.1.2.1) have broad substrate specificity and thus represent suitable candidate enzymes for hydrolyzing 6-aminopimelate. For example, the enzyme from Rattus norvegicus brain (Robinson et al., Res. Commun. 71:959-965 (1976)) can react with butyryl-CoA, hexanoyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. Though its sequence has not been reported, the enzyme from the mitochondrion of the pea leaf also has a broad substrate specificity, with demonstrated activity on acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, butyryl-CoA, palmitoyl-CoA, oleoyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA, and crotonyl-CoA (Zeiher et al., Plant. Physiol. 94:20-27 (1990)). The acetyl-CoA hydrolase, ACH1, from S. cerevisiae represents another candidate hydrolase (Buu et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:17203-17209 (2003)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism acot12 18543355 NP_570103.1 Rattus norvegicus ACH1 6319456 NP_009538 Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Another candidate hydrolase is the human dicarboxylic acid thioesterase, acot8, which exhibits activity on glutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA, suberyl-CoA, sebacyl-CoA, and dodecanedioyl-CoA (Westin et al., J Biol. Chem. 280:38125-38132 (2005)) and the closest E. coli homolog, tesB, which can also hydrolyze a broad range of CoA thioesters (Naggert et al., J. Biol. Chem. 266:11044-11050 (1991)). A similar enzyme has also been characterized in the rat liver (Deana et al., Biochem. Int. 26:767-773 (1992)). Other potential E. coli thioester hydrolases include the gene products of tesA (Bonner et al., Chem. 247:3123-3133 (1972)), ybgC (Kuznetsova et al., FEMS Microbiol Rev 29:263-279 (2005); and (Zhuang et al., FEBS Lett. 516:161-163 (2002)), paaI (Song et al., J Biol. Chem. 281:11028-11038 (2006)), and ybdB (Leduc et al., J Bacteriol. 189:7112-7126 (2007)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism tesB 16128437 NP_414986 Escherichia coli acot8 3191970 CAA15502 Homo sapiens acot8 51036669 NP_570112 Rattus norvegicus tesA 16128478 NP_415027 Escherichia coli ybgC 16128711 NP_415264 Escherichia coli paaI 16129357 NP_415914 Escherichia coli ybdB 16128580 NP_415129 Escherichia coli

Yet another candidate hydrolase is the glutaconate CoA-transferase from Acidaminococcus fermentans. This enzyme was transformed by site-directed mutagenesis into an acyl-CoA hydrolase with activity on glutaryl-CoA, acetyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack et al., FEBS. Lett. 405:209-212 (1997)). This suggests that the enzymes encoding succinyl-CoA:3-ketoacid-CoA transferases and acetoacetyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferases may also serve as candidates for this reaction step but would require certain mutations to change their function.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism gctA 559392 CAA57199 Acidaminococcus fermentans gctB 559393 CAA57200 Acidaminococcus fermentans

4.1.1.a Carboxy-lyase—The decarboxylation reactions of homolysine to HMDA (FIG. 20, Step H; FIG. 21, Step S; FIG. 22, Step E; FIG. 26, Step H), 2-aminopimelate to 6-ACA (FIG. 20, Step J, FIG. 21, Step AA and FIG. 26, Step E), 2,7-diaminosubarate to homolysine (FIG. 26, Step L), 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate to 6-aminohexanal (FIG. 26, Step B; FIG. 22, Step F) and 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate (FIG. 26, Step I) are catalyzed by amino acid decarboxylase enzymes. Lysine decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.18) catalyzes a similar transformation: the decarboxylation of lysine to form cadaverine. Two isozymes of this enzyme are encoded in the E. coli genome by genes cadA and ldcC. CadA is involved in acid resistance and is subject to positive regulation by the cadC gene product (Lemonnier et al., Microbiology 144 (Pt 3):751-760 (1998)). CadC accepts hydroxylysine and S-aminoethylcysteine as alternate substrates, but 2-Aminopimelate and 6-ACA act as competitive inhibitors to this enzyme (Sabo et al., Biochemistry 13:662-670 (1974)). Directed evolution or other enzyme engineering methods may be required for this enzyme to decarboxylate 2-aminopimelate. The constitutively expressed ldc gene product is less active than CadA (Lemonnier et al., Microbiology 144 (Pt 3):751-760 (1998)). A lysine decarboxylase analogous to CadA was recently identified in Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Tanaka, et al., J Appl Microbiol 104:1283-1293 (2008)). The lysine decarboxylase from Selenomonas ruminantium, encoded by ldc, bears sequence similarity to eukaryotic ornithine decarboxylases, and accepts both L-lysine and L-ornithine as substrates (Takatsuka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 63:1843-1846 (1999)). Active site residues were identified and engineered to alter the substrate specificity of the enzyme (Takatsuka et al., J Bacteriol. 182:6732-6741 (2000)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism cadA 145458 AAA23536.1 Escherichia coli ldcC 1786384 AAC73297.1 Escherichia coli ldc 13124043 O50657.1 Selenomonas ruminantium cadA 44886078 AB124819.1 Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Several ornithine decarboxylase enzymes (EC 4.1.1.17) exhibit activity on lysine and other similar compounds. Such enzymes are found in Nicotiana glutinosa (Lee et al., Biochem. J. 360:657-665 (2001)), Lactobacillus sp. 30a (Guirard et al., J Biol. Chem. 255:5960-5964 (1980)) and Vibrio vulnificus (Lee et al., J Biol. Chem. 282:27115-27125 (2007)). The enzymes from Lactobacillus sp. 30a (Momany et al., J Mol. Biol. 252:643-655 (1995)) and V. vulnificus have been crystallized. The V. vulnificus enzyme efficiently catalyzes lysine decarboxylation and the residues involved in substrate specificity have been elucidated (Lee et al., J Biol. Chem. 282:27115-27125 (2007)). A similar enzyme has been characterized in Trichomonas vaginalis but the gene encoding this enzyme is not known (Yarlett et al., Biochem. J293 (Pt 2):487-493 (1993)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism AF323910.1:1..1299 12007488 AAG45222.1 Nicotiana glutinosa odc1 1169251 P43099.2 Lactobacillus sp. 30a VV2_1235 27367615 NP_763142.1 Vibrio vulnificus

Keto-acid decarboxylase enzymes are required to convert 2-oxo-7-aminoheptanoate to 6-aminohexanal (Step F of FIG. 22; Step G of FIG. 26) and 2-amino-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-7-oxoheptanoate (Step A of FIG. 26). The decarboxylation of keto-acids is catalyzed by a variety of enzymes with varied substrate specificities, including pyruvate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.1), benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7), alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and branched-chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase. Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), also termed keto-acid decarboxylase, is a key enzyme in alcoholic fermentation, catalyzing the decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetaldehyde. The enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has a broad substrate range for aliphatic 2-keto acids including 2-ketobutyrate, 2-ketovalerate, 3-hydroxypyruvate and 2-phenylpyruvate (Henning et al., Appi. Environ. Microbiol. 72:7510-7517 (2006)). This enzyme has been extensively studied, engineered for altered activity, and functionally expressed in E. coli (Killenberg-Jabs et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001); L1, H. and F. Jordan, Biochemistry. 38:10004-10012 (1999); and ter Schure et al., Appi. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1303-1307 (1998)). The PDC from Zymomonas mobilus, encoded by pdc, also has a broad substrate range and has been a subject of directed engineering studies to alter the affinity for different substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). The crystal structure of this enzyme is available (Killenberg-Jabs et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001)). Other well-characterized PDC candidates include the enzymes from Acetobacter pasteurians (Chandra et al., Arch. Microbiol. 176:443-451 (2001)) and Kluyveromyces lactis (Krieger et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 269:3256-3263 (2002)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism pdc 118391 P06672.1 Zymomonas mobilus pdc1 30923172 P06169 Saccharomyces cerevisiae pdc 20385191 AM21208 Acetobacter pasteurians pdc1 52788279 Q12629 Kluyveromyces lactis

Like PDC, benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7) has a broad substrate range and has been the target of enzyme engineering studies. The enzyme from Pseudomonas putida has been extensively studied and crystal structures of this enzyme are available (Hasson et al., Biochemistry 37:9918-9930 (1998); and Polovnikova et al., Biochemistry 42:1820-1830 (2003)). Site-directed mutagenesis of two residues in the active site of the Pseudomonas putida enzyme altered the affinity (Km) of naturally and non-naturally occurring substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). The properties of this enzyme have been further modified by directed engineering (Lingen et al., Protein Eng 15:585-593 (2002); and Lingen et al., Chembiochem. 4:721-726 (2003)). The enzyme from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, encoded by mdlC, has also been characterized experimentally (Barrowman et al., FEMS Microbiology Letters 34:57-60 (1986)). Additional gene candidates from Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas fluorescens and other organisms can be inferred by sequence homology or identified using a growth selection system developed in Pseudomonas putida (Henning et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:7510-7517 (2006)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism mdlC 3915757 P20906.2 Pseudomonas putida mdlC 81539678 Q9HUR2.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa dpgB 126202187 ABN80423.1 Pseudomonas stutzeri ilvB-1 70730840 YP_260581.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens

A third enzyme capable of decarboxylating 2-oxoacids is alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (KGD). The substrate range of this class of enzymes has not been studied to date. The KDC from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Tian et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci US.A 102:10670-10675 (2005)) has been cloned and functionally expressed in other internal projects at Genomatica. However, it is not an ideal candidate for strain engineering because it is large (˜130 kD) and GC-rich. KDC enzyme activity has been detected in several species of rhizobia including Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Mesorhizobium loti (Green et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:2838-2844 (2000)). Although the KDC-encoding gene(s) have not been isolated in these organisms, the genome sequences are available and several genes in each genome are annotated as putative KDCs. A KDC from Euglena gracilis has also been characterized but the gene associated with this activity has not been identified to date (Shigeoka and Nakano, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991)). The first twenty amino acids starting from the N-terminus were sequenced MTYKAPVKDVKFLLDKVFKV (SEQ ID NO: 1) (Shigeoka and Nakano, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991)). The gene could be identified by testing candidate genes containing this N-terminal sequence for KDC activity.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism kgd 160395583 O50463.4 Mycobacterium tuberculosis kgd 27375563 NP_767092.1 Bradyrhizobium japonicum kgd 13473636 NP_105204.1 Mesorhizobium loti

A fourth candidate enzyme for catalyzing this reaction is branched chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (BCKA). This class of enzyme has been shown to act on a variety of compounds varying in chain length from 3 to 6 carbons (Oku and Kaneda, J Biol Chem. 263:18386-18396 (1988); and Smit et al., Appl Environ Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005)). The enzyme in Lactococcus lactis has been characterized on a variety of branched and linear substrates including 2-oxobutanoate, 2-oxohexanoate, 2-oxopentanoate, 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate, 4-methyl-2-oxobutanoate and isocaproate isocaproate (Smit et al., Appl Environ Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005)). The enzyme has been structurally characterized (Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007)). Sequence alignments between the Lactococcus lactis enzyme and the pyruvate decarboxylase of Zymomonas mobilus indicate that the catalytic and substrate recognition residues are nearly identical (Siegert et al., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)), so this enzyme would be a promising candidate for directed engineering. Decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate by a BCKA was detected in Bacillus subtilis; however, this activity was low (5%) relative to activity on other branched-chain substrates (Oku and Kaneda, J Biol Chem. 263:18386-18396 (1988)) and the gene encoding this enzyme has not been identified to date. Additional BCKA gene candidates can be identified by homology to the Lactococcus lactis protein sequence. Many of the high-scoring BLASTp hits to this enzyme are annotated as indolepyruvate decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1.74). Indolepyruvate decarboxylase (IPDA) is an enzyme that catalyzes the decarboxylation of indolepyruvate to indoleacetaldehyde in plants and plant bacteria.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism kdcA 44921617 AAS49166.1 Lactococcus lactis

Recombinant branched chain alpha-keto acid decarboxylase enzymes derived from the E1 subunits of the mitochondrial branched-chain keto acid dehydrogenase complex from Homo sapiens and Bos taurus have been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Davie et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:16601-16606 (1992); Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:1881-1887 (1992); and Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:12400-12403 (1992)). In these studies, the authors found that co-expression of chaperonins GroEL and GroES enhanced the specific activity of the decarboxylase by 500-fold (Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:12400-12403 (1992)). These enzymes are composed of two alpha and two beta subunits.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism BCKDHB 34101272 NP_898871.1 Homo sapiens BCKDHA 11386135 NP_000700.1 Homo sapiens BCKDHB 115502434 P21839 Bos taurus BCKDHA 129030 P11178 Bos taurus

4.1.2.a The condensation of pyruvate with 4-aminobutanal (FIG. 22, Step A) or glutamate-5-semialdehyde (FIG. 27, Step A) is catalyzed by an aldehyde lyase in the EC class 4.1.2. A variety of aldehyde lyase enzymes utilize pyruvate as an acceptor; however, none have been demonstrated to utilize 4-aminobutanal or glutamate-5-semialdehyde as a donor. The enzyme 4-hydroxy-2-oxopimelate (HODH) aldolase (EC 4.1.2.-), condenses succinic semialdehyde and pyruvate to catalyze the formation of 4-hydroxy-2-oxopimelate. This enzyme is a divalent metal ion-dependent class II aldolase, catalyzing the final step of 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid degradation in E. coli C, E. coli W, and other organisms. In the native context, the enzyme functions in the degradative direction. The reverse (condensation) reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable; however the equilibrium can be shifted through coupling HODH aldolase with downstream pathway enzymes that work efficiently on reaction products. Such strategies have been effective for shifting the equilibrium of other aldolases in the condensation direction (Nagata et al., Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 44:432-438 (1995); and Pollard et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol. 64:4093-4094 (1998)). The E. coli C enzyme, encoded by hpcH, is able to condense a range of aldehyde acceptors with pyruvate and has recently been crystallized (Rea et al., J Mol. Biol. 373:866-876 (2007); and

Stringfellow et al., Gene 166:73-76 (1995)). The E. coli W enzyme is encoded by hpal (Prieto et al., J Bacteriol. 178:111-120 (1996)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism hpcH 633197 CAA87759.1 Escherichia coli C hpaI 38112625 AAR11360.1 Escherichia coli W

Another pyruvate-utilizing aldehyde lyase is 2-dehydro-3-deoxyglucarate aldolase (DDGA, EC 4.1.2.20), a type II aldolase that participates in the catabolic pathway for D-glucarate/galactarate utilization in E. coli. The natural donor of this enzyme is tartronate semialdehyde, but this enzyme has a broad substrate specificity and has been shown to reversibly condense a wide range of aldehydes with pyruvate (Fish et al., Methods Enzymol. 9:529-534 (1966)). The crystal structure of this enzyme has been determined and a catalytic mechanism proposed (Izard et al., EMBO J. 19:3849-3856 (2000)). Additional candidate DDGA enzymes are found in Leptospira interrogans (118) and Sulfolobus solfataricus (Buchanan et al., Biochem. J. 343 Pt 3:563-570 (1999)). The S. solfataricus enzyme is highly thermostable and was cloned and expressed in E. coli (Buchanan et al., Biochem. J 343 Pt 3:563-570 (1999)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism garL 1176153 P23522.2 Escherichia coli LA_1624 24195249 AAN48823.1 Leptospira interrogans AJ224174.1:1..885 2879782 CAA11866.1 Sulfolobus solfataricus

4.2.1.a Hydro-lyase—Two reactions in FIGS. 20 and 22 employ enzymes in the dehydratase class (EC 4.1.2). The dehydration of 3-hydroxy-6-aminopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 20, Step D) is catalyzed by an enoyl-CoA hydratase. This reaction is not known to occur naturally; however the ability to dehydrate 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA derivatives is widespread. Enoyl-CoA hydratases (EC 4.2.1.17) catalyze the dehydration of a range of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA substrates (Agnihotri et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. 11:9-20 (2003; Conrad et al., J Bacteriol. 118:103-111 (1974) and Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol. 117:99-108 (1978)). The enoyl-CoA hydratase of Pseudomonas putida, encoded by ech, catalyzes the conversion of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA (Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol. 117:99-108 (1978)). Additional enoyl-CoA hydratase candidates are phaA and phaB, of P. putida, and paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 95:6419-6424 (1998)). The gene product of pimF in Rhodopseudomonas palustris is predicted to encode an enoyl-CoA hydratase that participates in pimeloyl-CoA degradation (Harrison et al., Microbiology 151:727-736 (2005)). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC (Park et al., J. Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397. 2003), paaF (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol 113-116:335-346 (2004) and (Park et al., Biotechnol Bioeng 86:681-686 (2004)) and paaG (Park et al., J Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397. 2003), paaF (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol 113-116:335-346 (2004) and (Park et al., Biotechnol Bioeng 86:681-686 (2004)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism ech 26990073 NP_745498.1 Pseudomonas putida paaA 26990002 NP_745427.1 Pseudomonas putida paaB 26990001 NP_745426.1 Pseudomonas putida phaA 106636093 ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens phaB 106636094 ABF82234.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens pimF 39650635 CAE29158 Rhodopseudomonas palustris maoC 16129348 NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli paaF 16129354 NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli paaG 16129355 NP_415912.1 Escherichia coli

3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.55), also called crotonase, is an enoyl-CoA hydratase that dehydrates 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to form crotonyl-CoA. Crotonase enzymes are required for n-butanol formation in some organisms, particularly Clostridial species, and also comprise one step of the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle in thermoacidophilic Archaea of the genera Sulfolobus, Acidianus, and Metallosphaera. Exemplary genes encoding crotonase enzymes can be found in C. acetobutylicum (Atsumi et al., Metab Eng. 10:305-311 (2008); and Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)), C. kluyveri (Hillmer et al., FEBS Lett. 21:351-354. 1972)), and Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science. 318:1782-1786 (2007)) though the sequence of the latter gene is not known.

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism crt 15895969 NP_349318.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum crt1 153953091 YP_001393856.1 Clostridium kluyveri

Alternatively, the E. coli gene products of fadA and fadB encode a multienzyme complex involved in fatty acid oxidation that exhibits enoyl-CoA hydratase activity (Nakahigashi et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 18:4937 (1990); Yang et al., J. Bacteriol. 173:7405-7406 (1991) and Yang et al., Biochemistry 30:6788-6795 (1991)). Knocking out a negative regulator encoded by fadR can be utilized to activate the fadB gene product (Sato et al., J Biosci. Bioeng 103:38-44 (2007)). The fadl and fadJ genes encode similar functions and are naturally expressed under anaerobic conditions (Campbell et al., Mol. Microbiol. 47:793-805 (2003)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism fadA 49176430 YP_026272.1 Escherichia coli fadB 16131692 NP_418288.1 Escherichia coli fadI 16130275 NP_416844.1 Escherichia coli fadJ 16130274 NP_416843.1 Escherichia coli fadR 16129150 NP_415705.1 Escherichia coli

2-Oxo-7-aminohept-3-enoate is formed from the dehydration of 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-7-aminoheptanoate (FIG. 22, Step B). The dehydration of 2-amino-5-hydroxy-7-oxosubarate to 2-amino-5-ene-7-oxosubarate (FIG. 27, Step B) is a similar transformation. Enzymes catalyzing these exact reactions are not known to occur naturally. A candidate enzyme that catalyzes a similar reaction is OHED hydratase, which naturally dehydrates 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-hepta-1,7-dioate (HODH) to 2-oxo-hept-4-ene-1,7-dioate (OHED). HODH is similar in structure to the desired substrates. This enzyme requires magnesium as a cofactor (Burks et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120 (1998)). OHED hydratase enzyme candidates have been identified and characterized in E. coli C (Izumi et al., J Mol. Biol. 370:899-911 (2007; and Roper et al., Gene 156:47-51 (1995)) and E. coli W (Prieto et al., J Bacteriol. 178:111-120 (1996)). Sequence comparison reveals homologs in a range of bacteria, plants and animals. Enzymes with highly similar sequences are contained in Klebsiella pneumonia (91% identity, evalue=2e-138) and Salmonella enterica (91% identity, evalue=4e-138), among others.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism hpcG 556840 CAA57202.1 Escherichia coli C hpaH 757830 CAA86044.1 Escherichia coli W hpaH 150958100 ABR80130.1 Klebsiella pneumoniae Sari_01896 160865156 ABX21779.1 Salmonella enterica

An alternate enzyme candidate for catalyzing this reaction is fumarase, also known as fumarate hydratase (EC 4.2.1.2). E. coli has three fumarases: FumA, FumB, and FumC that are regulated by growth conditions FumB is oxygen sensitive and only active under anaerobic conditions. FumA is active under microanaerobic conditions, and FumC is the only active enzyme in aerobic growth (Guest et al., J Gen Microbiol. 131:2971-2984 (1985); Tseng et al., J Bacteriol 183:461-467 (2001) and Woods et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 954:14-26 (1988)). FumC has been shown to dehydrate alternate substrates including tartrate and threo-hydroxyaspartate (Teipel et al., J Biol. Chem. 243:5684-5694 (1968)). A wealth of structural information is available for FumC and researchers have successfully engineered the enzyme to alter activity, inhibition and localization (Weaver et al., D Biol Crystallogr. 61:1395-1401 (2005)). Additional fumarate hydratase enzymes are found in Escherichia coli (Estevez et al., Protein Sci 11:1552-1557 (2002); Hong, et al., Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 9:252-255 (2005)) and Rose et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci US. A 101:3393-3397 (2004)), Corynebacterium glutamicum (Genda et al., Biotechnol Biochem. 70:1102-1109 (2006)), Campylobacter jejuni (Smith et al., Cell Biol 31:961-975 (1999)), Thermus thermophilus (Mizobata et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 355:49-55 (1998)), and Rattus norvegicus (Kobayashi et al., J Biochem. 89:1923-1931 (1981)). The MmcBC fumarase from Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum is another class of fumarase with two subunits (Shimoyama et al., FEMS Microbiol Lett 270:207-213 (2007)).

Gene GenBank name GI# Accession # Organism fumA 81175318 P0AC33 Escherichia coli K12 fumB 33112655 P14407 Escherichia coli K12 fumC 120601 P05042.1 Escherichia coli K12 fumC 39931596 Q8NRN8.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum fumC 9789756 O69294.1 Campylobacter jejuni fumC 75427690 P84127 Thermus thermophilus fumH 120605 P14408.1 Rattus norvegicus MmcB 147677691 YP_001211906 Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum MmcC 147677692 YP_001211907 Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum

Another enzyme candidate is citramalate hydrolyase (EC 4.2.1.34), an enzyme that naturally dehydrates 2-methylmalate to mesaconate. This enzyme has been studied in Methanocaldococcus jannaschii in the context of the pyruvate pathway to 2-oxobutanoate, where it has been shown to have a broad substrate specificity (Drevland et al., J Bacteriol. 189:4391-4400 (2007)). This enzyme activity was also detected in Clostridium tetanomorphum, Morganella morganii, Citrobacter amalonaticus where it is thought to participate in glutamate degradation (Kato et al., Arch. Microbiol. 168:457-463 1997)). The M. jannaschii protein sequence does not bear significant homology to genes in these organisms.

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism leuD 3122345 Q58673.1 Methanocaldococcus jannaschii

5.4.3.a Aminomutase—Several reactions in FIG. 21 involve shifting a secondary amine from the 3- to the 2-position (FIG. 21, Steps P, R, T). A promising enzyme candidate for catalyzing these transformations is lysine 2,3-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.2), an enzyme that naturally converts lysine to (3S)-3,6-diaminohexanoate, reversibly shifting an amine group from the 2- to the 3-position. The enzyme is found in bacteria that ferment lysine to acetate and butyrate, including Fusobacterium nucleatum (kamA) (Barker et al., J. Bacteriol. 152:201-207 (1982)) and Clostridium subterminale (kamA) (Chirpich et al., J. Biol. Chem. 245:1778-1789 (1970)). The enzyme from Clostridium subterminale has been crystallized (117). An enzyme encoding this function is also encoded by yodO in Bacillus subtilis (Chen et al., Biochem. J. 348 Pt 3:539-549 (2000)). The enzyme utilizes pyridoxal 5′-phosphate as a cofactor, requires activation by S-adenosylmethoionine, and is stereoselective for L-lysine. The enzyme has not been shown to react with alternate substrates, so directed evolution or other engineering methods may be required for this enzyme to react with the non-natural substrates 3-amino-7-oxohexanoate, 3,7-diaminoheptanoate and 3-aminopimelate. For example, Cargill has developed a novel 2,3-aminomutase enzyme derived from lysine-2,3-aminomutase that converts L-alanine to β-alanine (Liao et al., United States Patent 20050221466 (2005)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism kamA 75423266 Q9XBQ8.1 Clostridium subterminale kamA 81485301 Q8RHX4 Fusobacterium nucleatum yodO 4033499 O34676.1 Bacillus subtilis

Other enzymes with 2,3-aminomutase activity include tyrosine 2,3-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.6) and leucine 2,3-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.7). Tyrosine 2,3-aminomutase participates in tyrosine biosynthesis, reversibly converting tyrosine to 3-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionoate by shifting an amine from the 2- to the 3-position. In Streptomyces globisporus the enzyme has also been shown to react with tyrosine derivatives (Christenson et al., Biochemistry 42:12708-12718 (2003)); however, the sequence of this enzyme is not yet available. Leucine 2,3-aminomutase converts L-leucine to beta-leucine during leucine biosynthesis and degradation. A leucine 2,3-aminomutase-specific assay detected enzyme activity in many organisms (Poston et al., Methods Enzymol. 166:130-135 (1988)) but genes encoding the enzyme have not been identified to date.

6.2.1.a Acid-thiol ligase—The activation of carboxylic acids to acyl-CoA derivatives is catalyzed by CoA acid-thiol ligases or CoA synthetases in the EC class 6.2.1 (the terms ligase, synthetase, and synthase are used herein interchangeably and refer to the same enzyme class). Such enzymes couple the energetic cost of thioester bond formation to the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP or AMP. Several ADP-forming CoA ligases have been demonstrated to react in the reverse direction, removing the CoA moiety from acyl-CoA molecules and concomitantly forming ATP. Reversible CoA ligases are required to de-acylate 6-aminopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 20, Step I) and 3-oxopimeloyl-CoA (FIG. 21, Step B), whereas AMP or ADP forming ligases can acylate 3-oxopimelate (FIG. 21, Step H), 3-aminopimelate (FIG. 21, Step K) and 2-aminopimelate (FIG. 21, Step V). Enzymes catalyzing these exact transformations have not been characterized to date; however, several enzymes with broad substrate specificities have been described in the literature.

ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACD, EC 6.2.1.13) is an enzyme that couples the conversion of acyl-CoA esters to their corresponding acids with the concomitant synthesis of ATP. ACD I from Archaeoglobus fulgidus, encoded by AF1211, was shown to operate on a variety of linear and branched-chain substrates including isobutyrate, isopentanoate, and fumarate (Musfeldt et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). A second reversible ACD in Archaeoglobus fulgidus, encoded by AF1983, was also shown to have a broad substrate range with high activity on cyclic compounds phenylacetate and indoleacetate (Musfeldt et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). The enzyme from Haloarcula marismortui (annotated as a succinyl-CoA synthetase) accepts propionate, butyrate, and branched-chain acids (isovalerate and isobutyrate) as substrates, and was shown to operate in the forward and reverse directions (Brasen et al., Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004)). The ACD encoded by PAE3250 from hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum showed the broadest substrate range of all characterized ACDs, reacting with acetyl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA (preferred substrate) and phenylacetyl-CoA (Brasen et al., Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004)). Directed evolution or engineering can be used to modify this enzyme to operate at the physiological temperature of the host organism. The enzymes from A. fulgidus, H. marismortui and P. aerophilum have all been cloned, functionally expressed, and characterized in E. coli (Brasen et al., Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004); and Musfeldt et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). An additional candidate is the enzyme encoded by sucCD in E. coli, which naturally catalyzes the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate with the concomitant consumption of one ATP, a reaction which is reversible in vivo (Buck et al., Biochemistry 24:6245-6252 (1985)).

GenBank Gene name GI# Accession # Organism AF1211 11498810 NP_070039.1 Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304 AF1983 11499565 NP_070807.1 Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304 scs 55377722 YP_135572.1 Haloarcula marismortui PAE3250 18313937 NP_560604.1 Pyrobaculum aerophilum str. IM2 sucC 16128703 NP_415256.1 Escherichia coli sucD 1786949 AAC73823.1 Escherichia coli

Another candidate enzyme is the AMP-forming pimeloyl-CoA ligase (EC 6.2.1.14) which naturally activates pimelate to pimeloyl-CoA during biotin biosynthesis in gram-positive bacteria. The enzyme from Pseudomonas mendocina, cloned into E. coli, was shown to accept the alternate substrates hexanedioate and nonanedioate (Binieda et al., Biochem. J. 340 (Pt 3):793-801 (1999)). Other pimeloyl-CoA ligase candidates are found in Bacillus subtilis (Bower et al., J Bacteriol. 178:4122-4130 (1996)) and Lysinibacillus sphaericus (formerly Bacillus sphaericus) (Ploux et al., Biochem. J 287 (Pt 3):685-690 (1992)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism pauA 15596214 NP_249708.1 Pseudomonas mendocina bioW 50812281 NP_390902.2 Bacillus subtilis bioW 115012 P22822.1 Lysinibacillus sphaericus

Additional CoA-ligases include the rat dicarboxylate-CoA ligase for which the sequence is yet uncharacterized (Vamecq et al., Biochem J230:683-693 (1985)), either of the two characterized phenylacetate-CoA ligases from P. chrysogenum (Lamas-et al., Maceiras, J 395:147-155 (2006); and Wang et al., Biophys. Res. Commun. 360:453-458 (2007)) and the phenylacetate-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida (Martinez-Blanco et al., J Biol. Chem. 265:7084-7090 (1990)). Acetoacetyl-CoA synthetases from Mus musculus (Hasegawa et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1779:414-419 (2008)) and Homo sapiens (Ohgami et al., Biochem. Pharmacol. 65:989-994 (2003)) naturally catalyze the ATP-dependant conversion of acetoacetate into acetoacetyl-CoA.

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism phl 77019264 CAJ15517.1 Penicillium chrysogenum phlB 152002983 ABS19624.1 Penicillium chrysogenum paaF 22711873 AAC24333.2 Pseudomonas putida AACS 21313520 NP_084486.1 Mus musculus AACS 31982927 NP_076417.2 Homo sapiens

EXAMPLE XXVII Addtitional Pathways for Production of Hexamethylenediamine from 6-Aminocaproate

FIG. 24 provides additional pathways for HMDA production and is further to FIG. 13 and Example XX above. Arrows for Steps 0 and P indicate the direct conversion of 6-aminocaproate and 6-acetamidohexanoate to 6-aminocaproic semialdehyde and 6-acetamidohexanal, respectively. These reactions are catalyzed by a reductase in EC class 1.2.1.e. For a description of enzyme candidates, see Example XXVI (EC 1.2.1.e).

EXAMPLE XXVIII Pathways for Production of 6-Aminocaproate from Adipate

FIG. 25 provides additional pathways for 6-ACA production and is further to FIG. 10 and Example XVI above. The conversion of adipate to adipate semialdehyde (FIG. 25, Step X) is catalyzed by an enzyme with adipate reductase functionality. Adipate kinase catalyzes the formation of adipylphosphate from adipate (FIG. 25, Step Y). Adipate semialdehyde is formed from adipylphosphate by adipylphosphate reductase (FIG. 25, Step Z). Enzyme candidates for catalyzing these transformations are described in Example XXVI.

EXAMPLE XXIX Pathway for Production of Levulinic acid

Levulinic acid (LA), also known as 4-oxopentanoic acid and 4-ketovaleric acid, is a precursor to nylon-like polymers, synthetic rubbers and plastics. It is also a precursor of other commodity chemicals such as methyltetrahydrofuran, valerolactone and ethyl levulinate. Other potential applications include use as a fuel extender and a biodegradable herbicide/pesticide. It is traditionally prepared by treating cellulosic biomass with strong acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. This process has the disadvantages of low LA yield and numerous byproducts. More recently, the Biofine Process was developed which converts cellulosic biomass into LA, formic acid and furfural at a yield of 70% the theoretical maximum (Hayes et al., “The biofine process production of levulinic acid, furfural and formic acid from lignocellulosic feedstock” p. 139-164. In Biorefineries: Industrial Processes and Products. Wiley, Weinheim, Germany (2006)). Described herein is a process for selectively producing LA from sugar or syngas feedstocks using a microbial organism.

The maximum theoretical yield of LA from glucose is 1.45 moles of LA per mole glucose utilized (0.938 g/g), according to the following equation: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₂)+1.27CO₂→1.45LA(C₅H₈O₃)+0.18H₂O

LA is produced from the central metabolites succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA in three enzymatic steps. In the first step, acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA are condensed by a beta-ketothiolase to form 3-oxoadipyl-CoA (Step A of FIG. 25). The CoA moiety is subsequently removed by a CoA hydrolase, transferase or ligase (Steps E/F/G of FIG. 25). In the final step of the pathway, 3-oxoadipate is decarboxylated to LA (Step AA of FIG. 25).

The decarboxylation of 3-oxoadipate to LA can occur enzymatically or spontaneously. In E. coli, several 3-oxoacids produced during amino acid biosynthesis have been shown to undergo spontaneous decarboxylation (Boylan et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res Commun. 85:190-197 (1978)). An enzyme catalyzing the decarboxylation of 3-oxoadipate to LA has not been demonstrated to our knowledge. An exemplary enzyme candidate catalyzing a similar reaction is acetoacetate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.4). The acetoacetate decarboxylase from Clostridium acetobutylicum, encoded by adc, has a broad substrate specificity and has been shown to decarboxylate 3-oxopentanoate, 2-oxo-3-phenylpropionic acid and 2-methyl-3-oxobutyrate (Benner et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103:993-994 (1981) and Rozzel et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 106:4937-4941 (1984)). An acetoacetate decarboylase has also been characterized in Clostridium beijerinckii (Ravagnani et al., Mol. Microbiol. 37:1172-1185 (2000)). The acetoacetate decarboxylase from Bacillus polymyxa, characterized in cell-free extracts, also has a broad substrate specificity for 3-keto acids and can decarboxylate 3-oxopentanoate (Matiasek et al., Curr. Microbiol. 42:276-281 (2001)). The gene encoding this enzyme has not been identified to date and the genome sequence of B. polymyxa is not yet available. Another adc is found in Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka, et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 71:58-68 (2007)).

Gene name GI# GenBank Accession # Organism adc 15004868 NP_149328.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum adc 31075386 AAP42566.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum cbei_3835 150018652 YP_001310906.1 Clostridium beijerinckii

EXAMPLE XXX In Silico Knockout Strategies for Production of Adipate, 6-ACA and HMDA

This example describes gene disruption strategies for production of adipate 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) and hexamethylenediamine (HMDA).

Described below in more detail are sets of enzymatic activities that can be reduced by appropriate gene disruptions or deletions in a production host engineered to contain the adipate, 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA) and hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) production pathways, for example, pathways using succinyl CoA and acetyl CoA as precursors.

OptKnock is a bilevel computational framework formulated with the overall objective of developing genetically stable overproducing microorganisms. Specifically, the framework examines the complete network of a microorganism in order to suggest genetic manipulations that force the desired biochemical to become an obligatory byproduct of cell growth. By coupling biochemical production with cell growth through strategically placed gene disruptions or deletions, the growth selection pressures imposed on the engineered strains after long periods of time in a bioreactor lead to improvements in performance as a result of the compulsory growth-coupled biochemical production. Lastly, in the case of a gene deletion, there is negligible possibility of the designed strains reverting to their wild-type states because the genes selected by OptKnock are completely removed from the genome.

Growth-coupled biochemical production can be visualized in the context of the biochemical production envelopes of a typical metabolic network calculated using an in silico model. These limits are obtained by fixing the uptake rate(s) of the limiting substrate(s) to their experimentally measured value(s) and calculating the maximum and minimum rates of biochemical production at each attainable level of growth. Although exceptions exist, typically the production of a desired biochemical is in direct competition with biomass formation for intracellular resources. Thus, enhanced rates of biochemical production will generally result in sub-maximal growth rates. The knockouts suggested by OptKnock are designed to restrict the allowable solution boundaries forcing a change in metabolic behavior from the wild-type strain. Although the actual solution boundaries for a given strain will expand or contract as the substrate uptake rate(s) increase or decrease, each experimental point should lie within its calculated solution boundary. Plots such as these allow visualization of how close strains are to their performance limits or, in other words, how much room is available for improvement. The OptKnock framework has been used to identify promising gene deletion strategies for biochemical overproduction and establishes a systematic framework that will naturally encompass future improvements in metabolic and regulatory modeling frameworks.

Described below are sets of enzyme activities that should be absent, attenuated, or eliminated for creating host organisms that achieve growth-coupled adipate, 6-ACA or HMDA production upon the addition of the biosynthetic pathway that proceeds through succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA. To enumerate all potential strategies, an optimization technique, termed integer cuts, has been implemented which entails iteratively solving the OptKnock problem with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration.

The OptKnock algorithm was used to identify designs based on a stoichiometric model of Escherichia coli metabolism. Assumptions include (i) a glucose uptake rate of 10 mmol/gdw/hr; (ii) anaerobic or microaerobic conditions; and (iii) a minimum non-growth associated maintenance requirement of 4 mmol/gdw/hr. Table 12 provides a list of all the reaction stoichiometries and the associated genes known to be associated with the reactions identified for deletion in the strategies. Table 13 provides a list of the metabolite abbreviations, the corresponding names and locations of all the metabolites that participate in the reactions listed in Table 12. The growth-coupled productions designs for adipic acid, GACA and HMDA are provided in Tables 14-16. The product formation rates shown in Tables 14-16 are in mmol/gDCW·hr. The basis glucose uptake rate is 10 mmol/gDCW·hr and the biomass formation rate is shown in units of 1/hr. These tables list the reactions that are knocked out in a particular strategy, the anticipated product and biomass yields. Although the designs were identified using a metabolic model of E. coli metabolism, and the gene names listed are specific to E. coli, the method of choosing the metabolic engineering strategies and also the designs themselves are applicable to any HMDA, 6-ACA or adipate-producing organism. Thus the designs are essentially lists of enzymatic transformations whose activity is to be either eliminated, attenuated, or initially absent from a microorganism to provide the growth coupled production of adipate, 6ACA and HMDA.

The key criterion for prioritizing the final selection of designs was the growth-coupled yield of each of the products. To examine this, production cones were constructed for each strategy by first maximizing and, subsequently minimizing the product yields at different rates of biomass formation, as described above. If the rightmost boundary of all possible phenotypes of the mutant network is a single point, it implies that there is a unique optimum yield of the product at the maximum biomass formation rate possible in the network. In other cases, the rightmost boundary of the feasible phenotypes is a vertical line, indicating that at the point of maximum biomass the network can make any amount of the product in the calculated range, including the lowest amount at the bottommost point of the vertical line. Such designs were given a lower priority.

The metabolic engineering strategies described below assume that the organism can produce adipate, 6-ACA or HMDA via the succinyl CoA and acetyl-CoA utilizing pathway. The construction of a recombinant host organism capable of producing these products via the pathway is described herein.

Strain Construction:

In order to validate the computational predictions proposed in this report, the strains are constructed, evolved, and tested. Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655 housing the succinyl-CoA-acetyl-CoA pathway serves as the strain into which the deletions are introduced. The strains are constructed by incorporating in-frame deletions using homologous recombination via the X, Red recombinase system of Datsenko and Wanner (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97(12):6640-6645 2000)). The approach involves replacing a chromosomal sequence, that is, the gene targeted for removal, with a selectable antibiotic resistance gene, which itself is later removed. The knockouts are integrated one by one into the recipient strain. No antibiotic resistance markers remain after each deletion, allowing accumulation of multiple mutations in each target strain. The deletion technology completely removes the gene targeted for removal so as to substantially reduce the possibility of the constructed mutants reverting back to the wild-type.

Shake Flask Characterization:

As intermediate strains are being constructed, strain performance is quantified by performing shake flask fermentations. Anaerobic conditions are obtained by sealing the flasks with a rubber septum and then sparging the medium with nitrogen. For strains where growth is not observed under strict anaerobic conditions, microaerobic conditions can be applied by covering the flask with foil and poking a small hole for limited aeration. All experiments are performed using M9 minimal medium supplemented with glucose unless otherwise stated. Pre-cultures are grown overnight and used as inoculum for a fresh batch culture for which measurements are taken during exponential growth. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. The products, ethanol, and organic acids are analyzed by GC-MS or HPLC using routine procedures. Triplicate cultures are grown for each strain.

Batch Fermenter Testing:

The performance of select strains is tested in anaerobic, pH-controlled batch fermentations. This allows reliable quantification of the growth, glucose uptake, and formation rates of all products, as well as ensure that the accumulation of acidic fermentation products will not limit cell growth. In addition, it allows accurate determination of volumetric productivity and yield of product formation, two of the most important parameters in benchmarking strain performance. Fermentations are carried out in 1-L bioreactors with 600 mL working volume, equipped with temperature and pH control. The reactor is continuously sparged with N₂ at approximately 0.5 L/min to ensure that dissolved oxygen (DO) levels remain below detection levels. The culture medium is the same as described above, except that the glucose concentration is increased in accordance with the higher cell density achievable in a fermentation vessel.

Chemostat Testing:

Chemostat experiments are conducted to obtain a direct measure of how the switch in fermentation mode from batch to continuous affects product yield and volumetric productivity. The bioreactors described above using batch mode are operated in chemostat mode through continuous supply of medium and removal of spent culture. The inlet flow rate is set to maintain a constant dilution rate of 80% of the maximum growth rate observed for each strain in batch, and the outlet flow is controlled to maintain level. Glucose is the limiting nutrient in the medium, and set to achieve the desired optical density in the vessel.

Adaptive Evolution:

The knockout strains are initially expected to exhibit suboptimal growth rates until their metabolic networks have adjusted to their missing functionalities. To allow this adjustment, the strains is adaptively evolved. By subjecting the strains to adaptive evolution, cellular growth rate becomes the primary selection pressure and the mutant cells are compelled to reallocate their metabolic fluxes in order to enhance their rates of growth. This reprogramming of metabolism has been recently demonstrated for several E. coli mutants that had been adaptively evolved on various substrates to reach the growth rates predicted a priori by an in silico model (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36(10):1056-1058 (2004). The OptKnock-generated strains are adaptively evolved in triplicate (running in parallel) due to differences in the evolutionary patterns witnessed previously in E. coli (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36(10):1056-1058 (2004); Fong et al., J. Bacteriol. 185(21):6400-6408 (2003); Ibarra et al., Nature 420(6912):186-189 (2002)) that could potentially result in one strain having superior production qualities over the others. Evolutions are run for a period of 2-6 weeks, depending upon the rate of growth improvement attained. In general, evolutions are stopped once a stable phenotype is obtained. The growth-coupled biochemical production concept behind the OptKnock approach results in the generation of genetically stable overproducers.

Although described as deletion sets, it is understood, as disclosed herein, that gene sets can be deleted or disrupted so that encoded gene product activities are reduced or eliminated. Thus, the gene deletion sets of Tables 14-16 can be used to delete or disrupt a gene set in a host organism in which an increased production of 6-ACA, adipate and/or HMDA is desired. It is understood that any of the disclosed gene deletion sets can be used to generate knockout strains with disrupted or deleted genes that confer increased production of 6-ACA, adipate and/or HMDA.

TABLE 12 A list of all the reaction stoichiometries and the associated genes known to be associated with the reactions identified for deletion in the strategies listed in Tables 1 and 2. Reaction Abbreviation Reaction Name Reaction Stoichiometry Associated genes ACKr Acetate kinase [c]: ac + atp <==> actp + adp (b3115 or b2296 or b1849) ADHEr Alcohol dehydrogenase [c]: accoa + (2) h + (2) nadh (b0356 or b1478 or b1241) <==> coa + etoh + (2) nad AKGD Alpha-ketoglutarate [c]: akg + coa + nad --> co2 + (b0116 and b0726 and b0727) dehydrogenase nadh + succoa ALAR Alanine racemase [c]: ala-L <==> ala-D b4053 ASNS2 Asparagine synthetase [c]: asp-L + atp + nh4 --> amp + b3744 asn-L + h + ppi ASPT L-aspartase [c]: asp-L --> fum + nh4 b4139 ATPS4r ATP synthase adp[c] + (4) h[p] + pi[c] <==> (((b3736 and b3737 and b3738) atp[c] + (3) h[c] + h2o[c] and (b3731 and b3732 and b3733 and b3734 and b3735)) or ((b3736 and b3737 and b3738) and (b3731 and b3732 and b3733 and b3734 and b3735) and b3739)) CBMK2 Carbamate kinase [c]: atp + co2 + nh4 --> adp + (b0521 or b0323 or b2874) cbp + (2) h DAAD D-amino acid [c]: ala-D + fad + h2o --> fadh2 + b1189 dehydrogenase nh4 + pyr EDA 2-dehydro-3-deoxy- [c]: 2ddg6p --> g3p + pyr b1850 phosphogluconate aldolase ENO Enolase [c]: 2pg <==> h2o + pep b2779 FBA Fructose-bis-phosphate [c]: fdp <==> dhap + g3p (b2097 or b2925 or b1773) aldolase FRD Fumarate reductase [c]: fum + mql8 --> mqn8 + (b4151 and b4152 and b4153 and succ b4154) FUM Fumarase [c]: fum + h2o <==> mal-L (b1612 or b4122 or b1611) G5SD Glutamate-5- [c]: glu5p + h + nadph --> b0243 semialdehyde glu5sa + nadp + pi dehyrogenase G6PDHy Glucose-6-phosphate [c]: g6p + nadp <==> 6pgl + h + b1852 dehydrogenase nadph GLCpts D-glucose transport via glc-D[e] + pep[c] --> g6p[c] + ((b2417 and b1101 and b2415 and PTS mechanism pyr[c] b2416) or (b1817 and b1818 and b1819 and b2415 and b2416) or (b2417 and b1621 and b2415 and b2416)) GLU5K Gluatmate-5-kinase [c]: atp + glu-L --> adp + glu5p b0242 GLUDy Glutamate dehydrogenase [c]: glu-L + h2o + nadp <==> b1761 akg + h + nadph + nh4 HEX1 Hexokinase [c]: atp + glc-D --> adp + g6p + h b2388 LDH_D Lactate dehydrogenase [c]: lac-D + nad <==> h + nadh + b1380 or b2133 pyr MDH Malate dehydrogenase [c]: mal-L + nad <==> h + nadh + b3236 oaa ME1x Malic enzyme (NAD) [c]: mal-L + nad --> co2 + nadh + b1479 pyr ME2 Malic enzyme (NADP) [c]: mal-L + nadp --> co2 + b2463 nadph + pyr NADH12 NADH dehydrogenase [c]: h + nadh + ubq8 --> nad + b1109 (ubiquinone-8) ubq8h2 NADH6 NADH dehydrogenase (4.5) h[c] + nadh[c] + ubq8[c] --> (b2276 and b2277 and b2278 and (ubiquinone-8 and 3.5 (3.5) h[e] + nad[c] + b2279 and b2280 and b2281 and protons) ubq8h2[c] b2282 and b2283 and b2284 and b2285 and b2286 and b2287 and b2288) PDH Pyruvate dehydrogenase [c]: coa + nad + pyr --> accoa + ((b0114 and b0115 and b0116) or (b0116 co2 + nadh and b0726 and b0727) or (b0116 and b2903 and b2904 and b2905)) PFK Phosphofructokinase [c]: atp + f6p --> adp + fdp + h (b3916 or b1723) PFLi Pyruvate formate lyase [c]: coa + pyr --> accoa + for (((b0902 and b0903) and b2579) or (b0902 and b0903) or (b0902 and b3114) or (b3951 and b3952)) PGDH Phosphogluconate [c]: 6pgc + nadp --> co2 + b2029 dehyrogenase nadph + ru5p-D PGDHY Phosphogluconate [c]: 6pgc --> 2ddg6p + h2o b1851 dehydratase PGI Glucose-6-phosphate [c]: g6p <==> f6p b4025 isomerase PGL 6- [c]: 6pgl + h2o --> 6pgc + h b0767 Phosphogluconolactonase PGM Phosphoglycerate mutase [c]: 3pg <==> 2pg b3612 PPC Phosphoenolpyruvate [c]: co2 + h2o + pep --> h + oaa + b3956 carboxylase pi PPCK Phosphoenolpyruvate [c]: atp + oaa --> adp + co2 + pep b3403 carboxykinase PRO1z Proline oxidase [c]: fad + pro-L --> 1pyr5c + b1014 fadh2 + h PTAr Phosphotransacetylase [c]: accoa + pi <==> actp + coa b2297 PYK Pyruvate kinase [c]: adp + h + pep --> atp + pyr (b1854 or b1676) RPE Ribulose-5-phosphate-5- [c]: ru5p-D <==> xu5p-D (b4301 or b3386) epimerase SUCD4 Succinate dehydrogenase [c]: fadh2 + ubq8 <==> fad + (b0721 and b0722 and b0723 and ubq8h2 b0724 SUCOAS Succinyl-CoA synthetase [c]: atp + coa + succ <==> adp + (b0728 and b0729) pi + succoa TAL Transaldoalse [c]: g3p + s7p <==> e4p + f6p (b2464 or b0008) THD2 NADP transhydrogenase (2) h[e] + nadh[c] + nadp[c] --> (b1602 and b1603) (2) h[c] + nad[c] + nadph[c] THD5 NAD transhydrogenase [c]: nad + nadph --> nadh + nadp (b3962 or (b1602 and b1603)) TKT1 Transketolase [c]: r5p + xu5p-D <==> g3p + s7p (b2935 or b2465) TKT2 Transketolase [c]: e4p + xu5p-D <==> f6p + g3p (b2935 or b2465) TPI Triosephosphate [c]: dhap <==> g3p b3919 isomerase VALTA Valine transaminase [c]: akg + val-L <==> 3mob + b3770 glu-L

TABLE 13 List of the metabolite abbreviations, the corresponding names and locations of all the metabolites that participate in the reactions listed in Table 12. Metabolite Abbreviation Compartment Metabolite Name 13dpg Cytosol 3-Phospho-D-glyceroyl phosphate 1pyr5c Cytosol 1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate 2ddg6p Cytosol 2-Dehydro-3-deoxy-D-gluconate 6- phosphate 2pg Cytosol D-Glycerate 2-phosphate 3mob Cytosol 3-Methyl-2-oxobutanoate 3pg Cytosol 3-Phospho-D-glycerate 6pgc Cytosol 6-Phospho-D-gluconate 6pgl Cytosol 6-phospho-D-glucono-1,5-lactone ac Cytosol Acetate accoa Cytosol Acetyl-CoA actp Cytosol Acetyl phosphate adp Cytosol Adenosine diphosphate akg Cytosol 2-Oxoglutarate ala-D Cytosol D-alanine ala-L Cytosol L-alanine amp Cytosol Adenosine monophosphate asn-L Cytosol L-asparagine asp-L Cytosol L-aspartate atp Cytosol Adenosine triphosphate cbp Cytosol Carbamoyl phosphate co2 Cytosol Carbon dioxide coa Cytosol Coenzyme A dha Cytosol Dihydroxyacetone dhap Cytosol Dihydroxyacetone phosphate e4p Cytosol D-Erythrose 4-phosphate etoh Cytosol Ethanol f6p Cytosol D-Fructose 6-phosphate fad Cytosol Flavin adenine dinucleotide fadh2 Cytosol Flavin adenine dinucleotide-reduced fdp Cytosol D-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate for Cytosol Formate fum Cytosol Fumarate g3p Cytosol Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate g6p Cytosol D-Glucose 6-phosphate glc-D[e] Extra-organism D-Glucose glu5p Cytosol L-glutamate 5-phosphate glu5sa Cytosol L-glutamate 5-semialdehyde glu-L Cytosol L-Glutamate h Cytosol H⁺ h[e] Extra-organism H⁺ h2o Cytosol Water lac-D Cytosol D-Lactate mal-L Cytosol L-Malate mql-8 Cytosol Menaquinol-8 mqn-8 Cytosol Menaquinone-8 nad Cytosol Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide nadh Cytosol Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide - reduced nadp Cytosol Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate nadph Cytosol Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate - reduced nh4 Cytosol Ammonium o2 Cytosol Oxygen oaa Cytosol Oxaloacetate pep Cytosol Phosphoenolpyruvate pi Cytosol Phosphate ppi Cytosol Diphosphate pyr Cytosol Pyruvate r5p Cytosol alpha-D-Ribose 5-phosphate ru5p-D Cytosol D-Ribulose 5-phosphate s7p Cytosol Sedoheptulose 7-phosphate succ Cytosol Succinate succoa Cytosol Succinyl-CoA ubq8 Cytosol Ubiquinone-8 ubq8h2 Cytosol Ubiquinol-8 val-L Cytosol L-valine xu5p-D Cytosol D-Xylulose 5-phosphate

TABLE 14 Knockout strain designs for increased production of 6-ACA, showing yields of 6-ACA and biomass. New Design Num 6ACA. ID KO Yield Biomass Rxnlist 1 1 1.72604 0.38773 ATPS4r 2 1 0.83466 0.26712 PGI 3 2 5.04234 0.22255 HEX1, PGI 4 2 4.11897 0.24338 EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI 5 2 3.26272 0.35236 ADHEr, NADH6 6 2 2.8403 0.28275 ADHEr, PPCK 7 2 2.05537 0.33531 GLCpts, NADH6 8 2 2.0373 0.38161 ATPS4r, RPE 9 2 1.89007 0.3845 ATPS4r, TAL 10 2 1.49147 0.26024 PFLi, PGI 11 2 1.11406 0.32382 NADH6, PFLi 12 2 0.95551 0.27773 PFLi, PPCK 13 2 0.89333 0.37885 ADHEr, FUM 14 2 0.41621 0.38953 ADHEr, HEX1 15 2 0.31773 0.36065 ASPT, FUM 16 3 6.93034 0.18126 EDA and/or PGDHY, NADH6, PGI 17 3 6.91845 0.19552 HEX1, PFLi, PGI 18 3 6.14899 0.1758 EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI 19 3 5.81422 0.16481 ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI 20 3 5.71646 0.21908 ADHEr, HEX1, PGI 21 3 4.83364 0.29669 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi 22 3 4.23803 0.24209 ACKr and/or PTAr, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI 23 3 4.02855 0.29483 ADHEr, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 24 3 3.77533 0.25553 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH 25 3 3.65248 0.19372 ADHEr, NADH6, PGI 26 3 3.47283 0.25194 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK 27 3 3.39319 0.29001 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6 28 3 3.35305 0.34906 ADHEr, NADH6, RPE 29 3 3.23462 0.28717 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, SUCOAS 30 3 3.0877 0.16431 ADHEr, PGI, PPCK 31 3 2.90019 0.24841 ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK 32 3 2.89855 0.2815 ADHEr, PPCK, RPE 33 3 2.88617 0.25645 ADHEr, FUM, THD2 and/or GLUDy 34 3 2.72186 0.35068 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1 35 3 2.60615 0.3202 ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi 36 3 2.54001 0.22798 PFLi, PGDH, PGI 37 3 2.5259 0.22921 PFLi, PGI, TAL 38 3 2.5129 0.23034 PFLi, PGI, RPE 39 3 2.50442 0.16853 ATPS4r, PFLi, PGI 40 3 2.38919 0.18418 GLCpts, NADH6, PGI 41 3 2.30741 0.33343 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6 42 3 2.16995 0.33092 GLCpts, NADH6, RPE 43 3 2.11568 0.333 GLCpts, NADH6, TAL 44 3 2.10576 0.25488 ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK 45 3 1.5933 0.25891 FUM, PFLi, PGI 46 3 1.25154 0.3194 NADH6, PFLi, RPE 47 3 1.23093 0.32359 ACKr and/or PTAr, NADH6, PFLi 48 3 1.18643 0.32149 NADH6, PFLi, TAL 49 3 1.08143 0.27599 PFLi, PPCK, RPE 50 3 1.0527 0.27673 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PPCK 51 3 1.03356 0.34314 FUM, HEX1, PFLi 52 3 1.02156 0.27682 PFLi, PPCK, TAL 53 3 0.8538 0.24817 MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 54 3 0.5753 0.38695 ADHEr, HEX1, RPE 55 3 0.49968 0.38818 ADHEr, HEX1, TAL 56 3 0.31402 0.35643 FDH2, FUM, NADH6 57 3 0.23944 0.28074 FUM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 58 3 0.23418 0.26581 ASPT, MDH, PFLi 59 3 0.20901 0.23724 ASPT, MDH, PYK 60 4 7.08404 0.12641 EDA and/or PGDHY, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 61 4 7.0245 0.10838 EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 62 4 6.92332 0.16482 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, PGI 63 4 6.89839 0.18171 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, NADH6, PGI 64 4 6.58534 0.16513 EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, PFLi, PGI 65 4 6.36357 0.11937 EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 66 4 6.22082 0.11375 ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI 67 4 5.8701 0.13379 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI, PPCK 68 4 5.85757 0.23874 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 69 4 5.85411 0.19685 ADHEr, HEX1, PGI, PPS 70 4 5.67774 0.13549 EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI, PPCK, PYK 71 4 5.46506 0.26673 EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 72 4 5.40131 0.26362 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 73 4 5.08219 0.13778 ATPS4r, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 74 4 4.88764 0.27849 ADHEr, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 75 4 4.88489 0.27942 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PFLi 76 4 4.81778 0.26037 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6 77 4 4.73419 0.21859 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 78 4 4.63783 0.29595 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, NADH6 79 4 4.51525 0.21818 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 80 4 4.51525 0.21818 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 81 4 4.30547 0.19131 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PGI 82 4 4.2733 0.23078 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK 83 4 4.16417 0.18771 ATPS4r, NADH6, PGI, RPE 84 4 4.16053 0.18697 ATPS4r, NADH6, PGI, TAL 85 4 4.15658 0.18617 ATPS4r, NADH6, PGDH, PGI 86 4 4.12032 0.32701 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, NADH6 87 4 3.9718 0.23354 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PPCK 88 4 3.9718 0.23354 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, PPCK 89 4 3.8747 0.21758 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, MDH 90 4 3.84814 0.25342 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, RPE 91 4 3.83986 0.2047 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK 92 4 3.75472 0.32987 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6 93 4 3.54965 0.29114 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGDH 94 4 3.54605 0.21695 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 95 4 3.54385 0.218 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 96 4 3.53615 0.25027 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 97 4 3.5018 0.32809 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1 98 4 3.46904 0.25375 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6 99 4 3.46528 0.28851 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, RPE 100 4 3.44916 0.13425 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 101 4 3.44555 0.26498 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 102 4 3.43776 0.29402 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, TAL 103 4 3.36596 0.19156 FUM, NADH6, PGI, THD5 104 4 3.36596 0.19156 MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD5 105 4 3.33377 0.2967 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, RPE 106 4 3.33152 0.33978 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, TAL 107 4 3.32935 0.34088 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, TAL 108 4 3.32788 0.32122 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, NADH6 109 4 3.31278 0.3493 ADHEr, GLU5K, NADH6, TAL 110 4 3.31278 0.3493 ADHEr, G5SD, NADH6, TAL 111 4 3.17484 0.10602 ADHEr, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 112 4 3.16614 0.11184 ADHEr, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 113 4 3.16614 0.11184 ADHEr, FUM, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 114 4 3.11125 0.24826 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 115 4 2.96628 0.21051 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 116 4 2.95529 0.24477 ADHEr, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 117 4 2.95136 0.24731 ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK, RPE 118 4 2.94249 0.25305 ADHEr, FUM, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 119 4 2.93765 0.22693 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK, PYK 120 4 2.93765 0.22693 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK, PYK 121 4 2.9332 0.24406 ADHEr, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 122 4 2.90913 0.24328 ADHEr, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 123 4 2.90913 0.24328 ADHEr, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 124 4 2.90081 0.26381 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK, TAL 125 4 2.90081 0.26381 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK, TAL 126 4 2.86334 0.28161 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi 127 4 2.79498 0.34856 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, RPE 128 4 2.7362 0.31504 ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, RPE 129 4 2.70922 0.18179 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PGI 130 4 2.67469 0.31748 ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, TAL 131 4 2.61943 0.36027 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PPS 132 4 2.60629 0.2178 PFLi, PGDH, PGI, TAL 133 4 2.60314 0.31113 ADHEr, HEX1, MDH, PFLi 134 4 2.56456 0.18551 ASPT, NADH6, PGI, THD5 135 4 2.55949 0.17944 ATPS4r, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 136 4 2.45433 0.3546 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, THD2 and/or GLUDy 137 4 2.45166 0.03625 GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 138 4 2.44258 0.32891 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, RPE 139 4 2.43939 0.25153 ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK, RPE 140 4 2.37857 0.33105 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, TAL 141 4 2.30961 0.22691 ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 142 4 2.28135 0.25311 ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK, TAL 143 4 2.18633 0.3609 ADHEr, HEX1, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 144 4 2.11347 0.31979 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, MDH 145 4 2.05497 0.19746 ASPT, ATPS4r, PGI, THD5 146 4 1.83108 0.25754 MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 147 4 1.65594 0.25767 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, PFLi, PGI 148 4 1.36673 0.31918 ACKr and/or PTAr, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 149 4 1.30242 0.32127 ACKr and/or PTAr, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 150 4 1.28243 0.32216 ACKr and/or PTAr, GLU5K, NADH6, PFLi 151 4 1.28243 0.32216 ACKr and/or PTAr, G5SD, NADH6, PFLi 152 4 1.26654 0.34191 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, HEX1, PFLi 153 4 1.18926 0.34046 FUM, HEX1, PFLi, RPE 154 4 1.17756 0.275 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PPCK, RPE 155 4 1.1182 0.27583 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PPCK, TAL 156 4 1.1153 0.34173 FUM, HEX1, PFLi, TAL 157 4 0.95889 0.24471 MDH, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 158 4 0.9475 0.3633 ADHEr, FUM, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL 159 4 0.9475 0.3633 ADHEr, FUM, PGDH, TAL 160 4 0.90913 0.24635 MDH, PFLi, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 161 4 0.36773 0.36076 HEX1, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 162 4 0.3476 0.2132 ADHEr, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 163 4 0.32915 0.27571 FUM, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 164 5 6.98742 0.06748 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 165 5 6.97749 0.0848 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, PGI 166 5 6.70882 0.01277 EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 167 5 6.70882 0.01277 EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 168 5 6.69134 0.13239 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH 169 5 6.55123 0.09841 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 170 5 6.55123 0.09841 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PYK 171 5 6.3052 0.17034 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 172 5 6.20871 0.17434 EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD5 173 5 6.12639 0.08557 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 174 5 6.03386 0.19348 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 175 5 5.98628 0.0693 ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI, PPCK, PYK 176 5 5.98165 0.07186 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI, PPCK 177 5 5.93527 0.09761 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, PGI, PPCK 178 5 5.87444 0.0434 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 179 5 5.87444 0.0434 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 180 5 5.82336 0.16439 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK 181 5 5.75418 0.21654 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 182 5 5.65488 0.26204 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 183 5 5.59555 0.20952 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6 184 5 5.30614 0.21123 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 185 5 5.21058 0.214 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH 186 5 5.20451 0.17174 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 187 5 5.1776 0.13724 ADHEr, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 188 5 5.11744 0.13758 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 189 5 5.11744 0.13758 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 190 5 5.11714 0.20117 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 191 5 5.11714 0.20117 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 192 5 5.10437 0.12227 ADHEr, FUM, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 193 5 5.10437 0.12227 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 194 5 5.09877 0.17589 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 195 5 5.0606 0.22022 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 196 5 5.02693 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 197 5 5.02693 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 198 5 5.00057 0.21154 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 199 5 4.97638 0.21218 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 200 5 4.88781 0.27844 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 201 5 4.88512 0.29281 ADHEr, GLU5K, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 202 5 4.88512 0.29281 ADHEr, G5SD, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 203 5 4.885 0.29286 ADHEr, ASNS2, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 204 5 4.85776 0.29446 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, NADH6, RPE 205 5 4.83644 0.29517 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, NADH6, TAL 206 5 4.7175 0.34071 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 207 5 4.66386 0.18074 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PPCK 208 5 4.66386 0.18074 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, PPCK 209 5 4.63095 0.20189 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, PFLi, PPCK 210 5 4.49707 0.25782 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 211 5 4.4958 0.1778 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, NADH6, PYK 212 5 4.41977 0.25646 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 213 5 4.29965 0.18828 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PYK 214 5 4.29026 0.24034 ACKr and/or PTAr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLU5K, GLYCL, PGI 215 5 4.29026 0.24034 ACKr and/or PTAr, EDA and/or PGDHY, G5SD, GLYCL, PGI 216 5 4.28287 0.11665 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK, SUCOAS 217 5 4.24299 0.26303 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 218 5 4.18509 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 219 5 4.18509 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6, PGDH 220 5 4.15013 0.1124 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 221 5 4.14582 0.32483 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6, TAL 222 5 4.1099 0.32529 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6, RPE 223 5 4.04473 0.12883 ADHEr, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, PPCK 224 5 4.03844 0.12934 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, TAL 225 5 4.03266 0.12981 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, RPE 226 5 4.02531 0.1111 ADHEr, GLCpts, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 227 5 3.95205 0.10694 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, PGDH, PGI, SUCOAS 228 5 3.94203 0.1079 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, PGI, SUCOAS, TAL 229 5 3.9367 0.21579 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, MDH, RPE 230 5 3.93273 0.1088 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, PGI, RPE, SUCOAS 231 5 3.88257 0.21457 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 232 5 3.84571 0.22865 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 233 5 3.76049 0.30843 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, PFLi 234 5 3.74674 0.21738 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 235 5 3.71345 0.27754 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGDH, TAL 236 5 3.69299 0.14673 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 237 5 3.64625 0.1409 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, PGI, PPCK 238 5 3.64625 0.1409 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MDH, PGI, PPCK 239 5 3.60057 0.21551 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 240 5 3.59735 0.21725 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, RPE 241 5 3.59622 0.19297 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 242 5 3.59622 0.19297 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 243 5 3.59594 0.19311 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 244 5 3.59594 0.19311 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 245 5 3.59157 0.1952 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 246 5 3.57086 0.18962 ATPS4r, FUM, NADH6, PGI, THD5 247 5 3.57086 0.18962 ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD5 248 5 3.55204 0.22769 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 249 5 3.55204 0.22769 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 250 5 3.53212 0.25244 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, RPE 251 5 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, FUM, GLU5K, NADH6, PPCK 252 5 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, G5SD, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 253 5 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, GLU5K, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 254 5 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, FUM, G5SD, NADH6, PPCK 255 5 3.52319 0.22788 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, NADH6, PPCK 256 5 3.52319 0.22788 ADHEr, ASNS2, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 257 5 3.51328 0.26261 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 258 5 3.40958 0.31856 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, NADH6, RPE 259 5 3.19551 0.34972 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 260 5 3.04993 0.16253 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 261 5 3.04993 0.16253 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 262 5 3.02516 0.17674 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 263 5 2.95797 0.22895 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, PPCK, TAL 264 5 2.95797 0.22895 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, PPCK, TAL 265 5 2.94768 0.30664 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, MDH, PFLi 266 5 2.93267 0.03242 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 267 5 2.93156 0.27787 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 268 5 2.92149 0.26881 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 269 5 2.76831 0.35787 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PPS, RPE 270 5 2.73201 0.30945 ADHEr, HEX1, MDH, PFLi, RPE 271 5 2.69754 0.35901 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PPS, TAL 272 5 2.69256 0.22448 ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, RPE 273 5 2.67071 0.31025 ADHEr, HEX1, MDH, PFLi, TAL 274 5 2.63273 0.17703 ATPS4r, PFLi, PPCK, PYK, RPE 275 5 2.61965 0.35455 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 276 5 2.5479 0.2938 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, HEX1, THD2 and/or GLUDy 277 5 2.5408 0.35457 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 278 5 2.51093 0.22563 ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, TAL 279 5 2.50239 0.09117 GLCpts, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, PYK 280 5 1.97671 0.25583 ACKr and/or PTAr, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 281 5 1.41987 0.33925 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, HEX1, PFLi, RPE 282 5 1.41694 0.31779 ACKr and/or PTAr, GLU5K, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 283 5 1.41694 0.31779 ACKr and/or PTAr, G5SD, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 284 5 1.35397 0.34014 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, GLU5K, HEX1, PFLi 285 5 1.35397 0.34014 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, G5SD, HEX1, PFLi 286 5 1.35324 0.31986 ACKr and/or PTAr, GLU5K, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 287 5 1.35324 0.31986 ACKr and/or PTAr, G5SD, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 288 5 1.34703 0.34051 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, HEX1, PFLi, TAL 289 5 1.16644 0.24173 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 290 5 0.935 0.24579 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 291 5 0.5376 0.11141 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 292 5 0.44145 0.36033 HEX1, PFLi, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 293 5 0.41407 0.27855 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, FUM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 294 5 0.34153 0.21403 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 295 5 0.29506 0.27092 FUM, PFLi, PGDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 296 5 0.29506 0.27092 FUM, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 297 5 0.29233 0.27766 FUM, GLYCL, PFLi, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 298 2 1.72604 0.38773 ADHEr, ATPS4r 299 2 0.83466 0.26712 ADHEr, PGI 300 3 4.11897 0.24338 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI 301 3 2.0373 0.38161 ADHEr, ATPS4r, RPE 302 3 1.89007 0.3845 ADHEr, ATPS4r, TAL 303 3 1.49147 0.26024 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI 304 4 6.93034 0.18126 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, NADH6, PGI 305 4 6.91845 0.19552 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PGI 306 4 6.14899 0.1758 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI 307 4 5.81422 0.16481 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI 308 4 4.23803 0.24209 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, PGI 309 4 3.23462 0.28717 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, SUCOAS 310 4 2.60615 0.3202 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi 311 4 2.54001 0.22798 ADHEr, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 312 4 2.5259 0.22921 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI, TAL 313 4 2.5129 0.23034 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI, RPE 314 4 2.50442 0.16853 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFLi, PGI 315 4 1.5933 0.25891 ADHEr, FUM, PFLi, PGI 316 5 7.08404 0.12641 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 317 5 7.0245 0.10838 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 318 5 6.58534 0.16513 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, PFLi, PGI 319 5 6.36357 0.11937 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 320 5 6.22082 0.11375 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, PFLi, PGI 321 5 5.08219 0.13778 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 322 5 2.7362 0.31504 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, RPE 323 5 2.67469 0.31748 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, TAL 324 5 2.60629 0.2178 ADHEr, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, TAL 325 5 2.05497 0.19746 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, PGI, THD5 326 5 1.65594 0.25767 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, PFLi, PGI 327 6 7.82999 0.02101 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 328 6 7.21161 0.05631 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, HEX1, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 329 6 7.16447 0.10326 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PYK 330 6 6.97749 0.0848 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, PGI 331 6 6.89088 0.16538 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 332 6 6.86543 0.14022 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 333 6 6.72704 0.08076 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, NADH6, PYK 334 6 6.72704 0.08076 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 335 6 6.67303 0.15616 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 336 6 6.67303 0.15616 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 337 6 6.62564 0.17535 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 338 6 6.44535 0.24832 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 339 6 6.44535 0.24832 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 340 6 6.3515 0.04992 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 341 6 6.3052 0.17034 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PGDH 342 6 6.25221 0.15227 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 343 6 6.22508 0.18792 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 344 6 6.20871 0.17434 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD5 345 6 6.19852 0.09326 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 346 6 6.19408 0.16324 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 347 6 6.19255 0.17194 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, TAL 348 6 6.18674 0.18098 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 349 6 6.18358 0.11862 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 350 6 6.12313 0.19075 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 351 6 6.09846 0.03275 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 352 6 6.09846 0.03275 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 353 6 6.08794 0.17343 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, RPE 354 6 6.01307 0.17456 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 355 6 6.00837 0.14517 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 356 6 5.99004 0.18339 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 357 6 5.9797 0.19373 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, ADHEr, HEX1, PGI, PPS 358 6 5.97334 0.11266 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 359 6 5.96643 0.16387 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK, RPE 360 6 5.8983 0.16412 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK, TAL 361 6 5.89777 0.06803 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, HEX1, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 362 6 5.81808 0.13048 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 363 6 5.77313 0.13132 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 364 6 5.75832 0.26044 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLU5K, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 365 6 5.75832 0.26044 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, G5SD, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 366 6 5.75556 0.13165 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 367 6 5.68405 0.15589 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 368 6 5.64518 0.25081 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 369 6 5.61474 0.1274 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 370 6 5.57706 0.11542 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 371 6 5.55724 0.20645 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 372 6 5.39028 0.01098 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 373 6 5.36336 0.12039 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 374 6 5.35114 0.12824 ADHEr, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, RPE 375 6 5.34992 0.12867 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, RPE 376 6 5.34421 0.12775 ADHEr, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, TAL 377 6 5.34298 0.12817 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, TAL 378 6 5.33668 0.12721 ADHEr, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 379 6 5.33544 0.12763 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 380 6 5.3133 0.13509 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 381 6 5.30121 0.14588 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 382 6 5.29298 0.14544 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 383 6 5.28823 0.16642 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 384 6 5.28401 0.14496 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 385 6 5.28401 0.14496 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 386 6 5.28388 0.145 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 387 6 5.23479 0.26578 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 388 6 5.22487 0.16488 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 389 6 5.22487 0.16488 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 390 6 5.18966 0.19912 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 391 6 5.18966 0.19912 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 392 6 5.17671 0.18111 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 393 6 5.17275 0.18244 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 394 6 5.16547 0.14992 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PFLi 395 6 5.14231 0.02949 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 396 6 5.1335 0.31969 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 397 6 5.12241 0.20902 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 398 6 5.11384 0.20727 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 399 6 5.1046 0.2054 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH 400 6 5.00987 0.10652 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 401 6 4.99324 0.24292 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 402 6 4.98859 0.24448 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 403 6 4.91516 0.18237 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 404 6 4.91516 0.18237 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 405 6 4.90997 0.20313 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 406 6 4.86469 0.20078 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, PFLi, PPCK, RPE 407 6 4.79988 0.22937 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, MDH, NADH6, PYK 408 6 4.75998 0.22327 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 409 6 4.75998 0.22327 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 410 6 4.75352 0.20131 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, PFLi, PPCK, TAL 411 6 4.72575 0.27672 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 412 6 4.68468 0.22968 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 413 6 4.67203 0.24577 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 414 6 4.6646 0.15914 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 415 6 4.6568 0.25634 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ICL, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 416 6 4.6568 0.25634 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 417 6 4.6568 0.25634 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 418 6 4.64861 0.22305 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 419 6 4.61213 0.23585 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 420 6 4.54731 0.14834 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 421 6 4.45035 0.18822 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PYK, RPE 422 6 4.44107 0.285 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 423 6 4.37848 0.18825 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PYK, TAL 424 6 4.35711 0.22671 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6 425 6 4.30745 0.05232 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 426 6 4.29111 0.05856 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 427 6 4.29026 0.24034 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, G5SD, GLYCL, PGI 428 6 4.29026 0.24034 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLU5K, GLYCL, PGI 429 6 4.19017 0.18892 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 430 6 4.14405 0.19951 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK 431 6 4.14405 0.19951 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 432 6 4.14405 0.19951 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, PPCK 433 6 4.13843 0.19251 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, PPCK, RPE 434 6 4.11865 0.20026 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TAL 435 6 4.11865 0.20026 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 436 6 4.10258 0.11665 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK, SUCOAS 437 6 4.09791 0.11017 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 438 6 4.09791 0.11017 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 439 6 4.09533 0.20095 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 440 6 4.09533 0.20095 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 441 6 4.08336 0.13789 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 442 6 4.08234 0.13828 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 443 6 4.0683 0.31169 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 444 6 4.05789 0.14762 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 445 6 4.04139 0.17129 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 446 6 3.97871 0.17786 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 447 6 3.95205 0.10694 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, PGDH, PGI, SUCOAS 448 6 3.95184 0.18812 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 449 6 3.94624 0.19026 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 450 6 3.94455 0.21245 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 451 6 3.94203 0.1079 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, PGI, SUCOAS, TAL 452 6 3.93874 0.25675 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 453 6 3.93273 0.1088 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, PGI, RPE, SUCOAS 454 6 3.91186 0.22634 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 455 6 3.90038 0.04761 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 456 6 3.8947 0.05032 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 457 6 3.8947 0.05032 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 458 6 3.84046 0.12564 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 459 6 3.81228 0.08972 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 460 6 3.81228 0.08972 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 461 6 3.76251 0.07312 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 462 6 3.70324 0.1395 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 463 6 3.70023 0.1556 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 464 6 3.70023 0.1556 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 465 6 3.67651 0.1546 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, PYK 466 6 3.67651 0.1546 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 467 6 3.652 0.16631 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 468 6 3.64497 0.19156 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 469 6 3.62254 0.1804 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 470 6 3.5494 0.21535 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 471 6 3.41696 0.27865 ADHEr, DAAD, FDH2, NADH12, NADH6, PRO1z 472 6 3.41696 0.27865 ADHEr, ALAR, FDH2, NADH12, NADH6, PRO1z 473 6 3.40228 0.13474 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 474 6 3.27381 0.03414 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 475 6 3.22868 0.19148 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 476 6 3.11905 0.12289 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 477 6 3.11905 0.12289 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 478 6 3.10777 0.12936 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 479 6 3.10777 0.12936 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 480 6 2.9427 0.20328 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 481 6 2.9427 0.20328 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 482 6 2.80361 0.3231 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 483 6 2.79375 0.29126 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 484 6 2.68652 0.29222 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, HEX1, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 485 6 2.62059 0.29297 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, HEX1, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 486 6 2.46956 0.30762 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 487 6 0.97386 0.28207 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 488 6 0.97386 0.28207 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 489 6 0.97386 0.28207 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 490 6 0.97386 0.28207 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 491 6 0.97386 0.28207 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 492 6 0.97386 0.28207 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MALS, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 493 6 0.90686 0.28301 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MALS, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 494 6 0.90686 0.28301 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 495 6 0.84537 0.28387 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 496 6 0.84537 0.28387 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MALS, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 497 3 3.26272 0.35236 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6 498 3 2.8403 0.28275 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK 499 3 1.72604 0.38773 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D 500 3 0.89333 0.37885 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D 501 3 0.83466 0.26712 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI 502 3 0.41621 0.38953 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D 503 4 5.71646 0.21908 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 504 4 4.83364 0.29669 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 505 4 4.11897 0.24338 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 506 4 3.77533 0.25553 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 507 4 3.65248 0.19372 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 508 4 3.47283 0.25194 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 509 4 3.39319 0.29001 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 510 4 3.35305 0.34906 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 511 4 3.0877 0.16431 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 512 4 2.90019 0.24841 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK 513 4 2.89855 0.2815 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 514 4 2.88617 0.25645 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 515 4 2.72186 0.35068 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 516 4 2.0373 0.38161 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, RPE 517 4 1.89007 0.3845 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TAL 518 4 1.49147 0.26024 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 519 4 0.5753 0.38695 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 520 4 0.49968 0.38818 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL 521 5 6.93034 0.18126 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 522 5 6.92332 0.16482 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 523 5 6.91845 0.19552 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 524 5 6.89839 0.18171 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 525 5 6.14899 0.1758 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 526 5 5.8701 0.13379 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 527 5 5.85757 0.23874 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 528 5 5.85411 0.19685 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI, PPS 529 5 5.81422 0.16481 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 530 5 5.40131 0.26362 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 531 5 4.88764 0.27849 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 532 5 4.88489 0.27942 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 533 5 4.81778 0.26037 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 534 5 4.73419 0.21859 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 535 5 4.63783 0.29595 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6 536 5 4.30547 0.19131 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 537 5 4.2733 0.23078 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 538 5 4.23803 0.24209 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 539 5 4.12032 0.32701 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 540 5 3.9718 0.23354 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 541 5 3.9718 0.23354 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 542 5 3.8747 0.21758 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 543 5 3.84814 0.25342 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 544 5 3.83986 0.2047 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 545 5 3.75472 0.32987 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 546 5 3.54965 0.29114 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 547 5 3.54605 0.21695 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 548 5 3.54385 0.218 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 549 5 3.53615 0.25027 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 550 5 3.5018 0.32809 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 551 5 3.46904 0.25375 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 552 5 3.46528 0.28851 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 553 5 3.44916 0.13425 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 554 5 3.44555 0.26498 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 555 5 3.43776 0.29402 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 556 5 3.33377 0.2967 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 557 5 3.33152 0.33978 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 558 5 3.32935 0.34088 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 559 5 3.32788 0.32122 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 560 5 3.31278 0.3493 ADHEr, G5SD, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 561 5 3.31278 0.3493 ADHEr, GLU5K, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 562 5 3.23462 0.28717 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, SUCOAS 563 5 3.17484 0.10602 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 564 5 3.16614 0.11184 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 565 5 3.16614 0.11184 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 566 5 3.11125 0.24826 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 567 5 2.95529 0.24477 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 568 5 2.95136 0.24731 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 569 5 2.94249 0.25305 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 570 5 2.93765 0.22693 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 571 5 2.93765 0.22693 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 572 5 2.9332 0.24406 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 573 5 2.90913 0.24328 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 574 5 2.90913 0.24328 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 575 5 2.90081 0.26381 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TAL 576 5 2.90081 0.26381 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 577 5 2.79498 0.34856 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 578 5 2.61943 0.36027 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS 579 5 2.60615 0.3202 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 580 5 2.60314 0.31113 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 581 5 2.54001 0.22798 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 582 5 2.5259 0.22921 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, TAL 583 5 2.5129 0.23034 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, RPE 584 5 2.50442 0.16853 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 585 5 2.45433 0.3546 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 586 5 2.18633 0.3609 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 587 5 2.11347 0.31979 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH 588 5 1.5933 0.25891 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 589 5 0.9475 0.3633 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, TAL 590 5 0.9475 0.3633 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL 591 6 7.08404 0.12641 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 592 6 7.0245 0.10838 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 593 6 6.98742 0.06748 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 594 6 6.69134 0.13239 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 595 6 6.58534 0.16513 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 596 6 6.55123 0.09841 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 597 6 6.55123 0.09841 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 598 6 6.36357 0.11937 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 599 6 6.22082 0.11375 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 600 6 5.98165 0.07186 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 601 6 5.93527 0.09761 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 602 6 5.87444 0.0434 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 603 6 5.87444 0.0434 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 604 6 5.65488 0.26204 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 605 6 5.59555 0.20952 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 606 6 5.1776 0.13724 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 607 6 5.11744 0.13758 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 608 6 5.11744 0.13758 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 609 6 5.09877 0.17589 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 610 6 5.08219 0.13778 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 611 6 5.02693 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 612 6 5.02693 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 613 6 5.00057 0.21154 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 614 6 4.97638 0.21218 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 615 6 4.88512 0.29281 ADHEr, GLU5K, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 616 6 4.88512 0.29281 ADHEr, G5SD, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 617 6 4.885 0.29286 ADHEr, ASNS2, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 618 6 4.85776 0.29446 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 619 6 4.83644 0.29517 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 620 6 4.66386 0.18074 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK 621 6 4.66386 0.18074 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 622 6 4.63095 0.20189 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 623 6 4.49707 0.25782 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 624 6 4.4958 0.1778 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK 625 6 4.41977 0.25646 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 626 6 4.18509 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 627 6 4.18509 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH 628 6 4.15013 0.1124 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 629 6 4.14582 0.32483 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 630 6 4.1099 0.32529 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 631 6 4.04473 0.12883 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, PPCK 632 6 4.03844 0.12934 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, TAL 633 6 4.03266 0.12981 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, RPE 634 6 4.02531 0.1111 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 635 6 3.9367 0.21579 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 636 6 3.76049 0.30843 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 637 6 3.71345 0.27754 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, TAL 638 6 3.69299 0.14673 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 639 6 3.64625 0.1409 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, PPCK 640 6 3.64625 0.1409 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 641 6 3.60057 0.21551 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 642 6 3.59735 0.21725 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, RPE 643 6 3.59622 0.19297 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 644 6 3.59622 0.19297 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 645 6 3.59594 0.19311 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 646 6 3.59594 0.19311 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 647 6 3.59157 0.1952 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 648 6 3.55204 0.22769 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 649 6 3.55204 0.22769 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 650 6 3.53212 0.25244 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 651 6 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, GLU5K, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 652 6 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, G5SD, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 653 6 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, FUM, GLU5K, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 654 6 3.52326 0.22785 ADHEr, FUM, G5SD, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 655 6 3.52319 0.22788 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 656 6 3.52319 0.22788 ADHEr, ASNS2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 657 6 3.51328 0.26261 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 658 6 3.40958 0.31856 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 659 6 3.19551 0.34972 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 660 6 2.95797 0.22895 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 661 6 2.95797 0.22895 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TAL 662 6 2.94768 0.30664 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 663 6 2.92149 0.26881 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 664 6 2.76831 0.35787 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, RPE 665 6 2.7362 0.31504 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE 666 6 2.73201 0.30945 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE 667 6 2.69754 0.35901 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, TAL 668 6 2.67469 0.31748 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, TAL 669 6 2.67071 0.31025 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, TAL 670 6 2.61965 0.35455 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 671 6 2.60629 0.2178 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, TAL 672 6 2.5479 0.2938 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 673 6 2.5408 0.35457 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 674 6 2.05497 0.19746 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGI, THD5 675 6 1.65594 0.25767 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 676 7 7.90077 0.01226 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 677 7 7.84104 0.01965 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 678 7 7.7052 0.03644 ADHEr, ASPT, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 679 7 7.67191 0.04055 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 680 7 7.61518 0.06956 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 681 7 7.57942 0.07603 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH 682 7 7.57942 0.07603 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH 683 7 7.57606 0.07664 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 684 7 7.57606 0.07664 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 685 7 7.57295 0.0772 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 686 7 7.57295 0.0772 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 687 7 7.55163 0.08105 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 688 7 7.38115 0.07649 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 689 7 7.293 0.07152 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 690 7 7.21161 0.05631 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 691 7 7.10953 0.03056 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 692 7 7.04629 0.01861 ADHEr, ARGt4, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 693 7 7.04629 0.01861 ADHEr, ARGt4, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 694 7 7.01619 0.17329 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH 695 7 7.00623 0.10284 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 696 7 7.00542 0.17519 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 697 7 6.99744 0.05155 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 698 7 6.99744 0.05155 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 699 7 6.99744 0.05155 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 700 7 6.99618 0.02608 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 701 7 6.99539 0.17696 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 702 7 6.99098 0.13845 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy 703 7 6.99098 0.13845 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 704 7 6.97749 0.0848 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 705 7 6.95495 0.04834 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 706 7 6.94643 0.04549 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 707 7 6.94643 0.04549 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 708 7 6.94035 0.16409 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 709 7 6.93216 0.19304 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 710 7 6.9218 0.16465 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 711 7 6.90477 0.16517 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 712 7 6.89223 0.07039 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 713 7 6.89088 0.16538 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 714 7 6.88301 0.07117 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 715 7 6.88301 0.07117 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 716 7 6.86164 0.16622 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 717 7 6.83471 0.167 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 718 7 6.81823 0.05671 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 719 7 6.75858 0.12153 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 720 7 6.75858 0.12153 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 721 7 6.74354 0.0559 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 722 7 6.72704 0.08076 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK 723 7 6.72704 0.08076 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 724 7 6.72478 0.09245 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 725 7 6.71779 0.1313 ADHEr, FBP, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 726 7 6.71371 0.1397 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 727 7 6.69882 0.08259 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 728 7 6.69814 0.08084 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 729 7 6.68517 0.13281 ADHEr, FBP, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 730 7 6.67827 0.0833 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 731 7 6.67803 0.08153 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 732 7 6.66553 0.13149 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 733 7 6.65922 0.08397 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 734 7 6.65477 0.13422 ADHEr, FBP, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 735 7 6.65444 0.13292 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 736 7 6.64411 0.13426 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 737 7 6.54706 0.05865 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 738 7 6.50546 0.0488 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 739 7 6.4951 0.09302 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 740 7 6.48152 0.09261 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 741 7 6.4815 0.14937 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 742 7 6.4814 0.1488 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 743 7 6.48129 0.14819 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 744 7 6.46677 0.09217 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 745 7 6.46677 0.09217 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 746 7 6.40404 0.13985 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 747 7 6.39358 0.0544 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 748 7 6.36333 0.16503 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 749 7 6.35537 0.14906 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK 750 7 6.34075 0.15004 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FDH2, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 751 7 6.33847 0.16728 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 752 7 6.30136 0.19463 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 753 7 6.30082 0.1583 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 754 7 6.23552 0.18763 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 755 7 6.23519 0.15548 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 756 7 6.22748 0.15693 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 757 7 6.22033 0.15828 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 758 7 6.2176 0.1588 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 759 7 6.21321 0.15963 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 760 7 6.20917 0.16039 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 761 7 6.20871 0.17434 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD5 762 7 6.18575 0.17904 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6 763 7 6.17771 0.01562 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 764 7 6.17771 0.01562 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 765 7 6.10255 0.12296 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 766 7 6.08364 0.10963 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 767 7 6.05909 0.217 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 768 7 5.99909 0.09659 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 769 7 5.99909 0.09659 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 770 7 5.9797 0.19373 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI, PPS 771 7 5.97334 0.11266 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 772 7 5.94122 0.14646 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 773 7 5.94122 0.14646 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 774 7 5.9395 0.02821 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 775 7 5.89777 0.06803 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 776 7 5.86803 0.06511 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 777 7 5.84763 0.01509 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 778 7 5.80727 0.03994 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 779 7 5.80665 0.23182 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 780 7 5.77313 0.13132 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 781 7 5.77052 0.23124 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 782 7 5.75832 0.26044 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, G5SD, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 783 7 5.75832 0.26044 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLU5K, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 784 7 5.75556 0.13165 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 785 7 5.75413 0.21628 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 786 7 5.75142 0.15 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 787 7 5.75142 0.15 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 788 7 5.73569 0.11619 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 789 7 5.73112 0.23062 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 790 7 5.73112 0.23062 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 791 7 5.7037 0.1229 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 792 7 5.7037 0.1229 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 793 7 5.67082 0.04313 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 794 7 5.67082 0.04313 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 795 7 5.6689 0.01529 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 796 7 5.57706 0.11542 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 797 7 5.57479 0.20482 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 798 7 5.56128 0.20483 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, THD2 and/or GLUDy 799 7 5.53687 0.15179 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 800 7 5.48032 0.07882 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 801 7 5.48032 0.07882 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 802 7 5.4574 0.07896 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 803 7 5.43688 0.14109 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 804 7 5.42926 0.03599 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 805 7 5.41288 0.10644 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, RPE 806 7 5.41288 0.10644 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, RPE 807 7 5.40727 0.10598 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, TAL 808 7 5.40727 0.10598 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, TAL 809 7 5.40541 0.10406 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 810 7 5.40329 0.10477 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 811 7 5.40329 0.10477 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 812 7 5.40117 0.10549 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, PPCK 813 7 5.40117 0.10549 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, PPCK 814 7 5.38947 0.11011 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 815 7 5.37417 0.11441 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 816 7 5.37043 0.12143 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, RPE 817 7 5.37015 0.12013 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 818 7 5.36414 0.12087 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, TAL 819 7 5.3573 0.12027 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 820 7 5.3512 0.12232 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 821 7 5.35114 0.12824 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, RPE 822 7 5.34992 0.12867 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, RPE 823 7 5.34421 0.12775 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, TAL 824 7 5.34298 0.12817 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, TAL 825 7 5.33668 0.12721 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 826 7 5.33544 0.12763 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 827 7 5.32853 0.04869 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 828 7 5.32586 0.13717 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 829 7 5.31986 0.13616 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 830 7 5.31768 0.14006 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 831 7 5.31768 0.14006 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 832 7 5.31338 0.13506 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 833 7 5.31338 0.13506 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 834 7 5.31161 0.139 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 835 7 5.31161 0.139 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 836 7 5.30507 0.13786 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 837 7 5.30507 0.13786 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 838 7 5.30507 0.13786 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 839 7 5.30121 0.14588 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 840 7 5.29298 0.14544 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 841 7 5.29144 0.14245 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 842 7 5.28753 0.08933 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 843 7 5.28422 0.14489 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 844 7 5.28422 0.14489 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 845 7 5.28401 0.14496 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 846 7 5.28401 0.14496 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 847 7 5.27588 0.18393 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 848 7 5.27588 0.18393 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 849 7 5.2736 0.14846 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 850 7 5.25759 0.18586 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 851 7 5.24329 0.06953 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 852 7 5.24057 0.18767 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 853 7 5.23194 0.07004 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 854 7 5.22143 0.07051 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 855 7 5.1096 0.03265 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 856 7 5.07833 0.23187 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 857 7 4.9126 0.20186 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 858 7 4.9126 0.20186 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 859 7 4.89537 0.08136 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 860 7 4.86469 0.20078 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, RPE 861 7 4.86188 0.1035 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 862 7 4.85917 0.04186 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 863 7 4.85917 0.04186 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 864 7 4.84043 0.16101 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 865 7 4.75352 0.20131 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TAL 866 7 4.6646 0.15914 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 867 7 4.6568 0.25634 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 868 7 4.6568 0.25634 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 869 7 4.6568 0.25634 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 870 7 4.60984 0.1687 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 871 7 4.60771 0.13834 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 872 7 4.5647 0.0741 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 873 7 4.51839 0.16783 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 874 7 4.48284 0.18237 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK 875 7 4.46608 0.18828 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6 876 7 4.43524 0.31394 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS 877 7 4.43524 0.31394 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 878 7 4.43072 0.22439 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, RPE 879 7 4.41919 0.16689 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 880 7 4.4053 0.01495 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 881 7 4.39394 0.31457 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL 882 7 4.37728 0.02565 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 883 7 4.37061 0.04989 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 884 7 4.36653 0.05265 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 885 7 4.36374 0.03082 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 886 7 4.36277 0.03119 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 887 7 4.35613 0.31514 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE 888 7 4.29026 0.24034 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLU5K, GLYCL, LDH_D, PGI 889 7 4.29026 0.24034 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, G5SD, GLYCL, LDH_D, PGI 890 7 4.25283 0.07318 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 891 7 4.17894 0.31889 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 892 7 4.17527 0.08598 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 893 7 4.17527 0.08598 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 894 7 4.17215 0.10398 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 895 7 4.15042 0.11229 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 896 7 4.14938 0.11268 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 897 7 4.141 0.08314 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 898 7 4.10258 0.11665 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, SUCOAS 899 7 4.08743 0.09886 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 900 7 4.04907 0.15099 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 901 7 4.03008 0.1761 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 902 7 4.01398 0.06136 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 903 7 4.00698 0.18592 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 904 7 4.00128 0.18834 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 905 7 3.95205 0.10694 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGDH, PGI, SUCOAS 906 7 3.94203 0.1079 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGI, SUCOAS, TAL 907 7 3.93273 0.1088 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGI, RPE, SUCOAS 908 7 3.90038 0.04761 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 909 7 3.8947 0.05032 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 910 7 3.8947 0.05032 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 911 7 3.88125 0.03656 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 912 7 3.86624 0.19846 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 913 7 3.82356 0.31976 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 914 7 3.81228 0.08972 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 915 7 3.81228 0.08972 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 916 7 3.77115 0.10937 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 917 7 3.7291 0.12947 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 918 7 3.7245 0.13167 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 919 7 3.68994 0.14818 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 920 7 3.67651 0.1546 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, PYK 921 7 3.67651 0.1546 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 922 7 3.64497 0.19156 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 923 7 3.60739 0.21183 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 924 7 3.41696 0.27865 ADHEr, ALAR, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PRO1z 925 7 3.41696 0.27865 ADHEr, DAAD, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PRO1z 926 7 3.40396 0.28486 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 927 7 3.25909 0.04258 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 928 7 3.25909 0.04258 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 929 7 3.2372 0.06431 ADHEr, FBP, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 930 7 3.2372 0.06431 ADHEr, FBP, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 931 7 3.23399 0.06432 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 932 7 3.23399 0.06432 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 933 7 3.22783 0.06435 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 934 7 3.22783 0.06435 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 935 7 3.01859 0.19992 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 936 7 3.00174 0.19757 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 937 7 3.00174 0.19757 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 938 7 2.96091 0.22716 ADHEr, FUM, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 939 7 2.93716 0.22721 ADHEr, FUM, GLU5K, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 940 7 2.93716 0.22721 ADHEr, FUM, G5SD, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 941 7 2.93711 0.22724 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 942 7 2.7731 0.32129 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, GLU5K, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 943 7 2.7731 0.32129 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, G5SD, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 944 7 2.68652 0.29222 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 945 7 2.62059 0.29297 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 946 7 2.35991 0.29396 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, RPE, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 947 7 2.35766 0.29368 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, SUCOAS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 948 7 2.3552 0.29337 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 949 7 2.3552 0.29337 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 950 7 1.91133 0.2766 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 951 7 1.91133 0.2766 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 952 7 1.91133 0.2766 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 953 7 1.91133 0.2766 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 954 7 1.91133 0.2766 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 955 7 1.91133 0.2766 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 956 7 1.86676 0.2774 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 957 7 1.86676 0.2774 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 958 7 1.86676 0.2774 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 959 7 1.8259 0.27813 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 960 7 1.8259 0.27813 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 961 7 1.8259 0.27813 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 962 7 1.11652 0.25888 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MALS, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 963 7 1.11652 0.25888 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, ICL, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 964 5 7.09275 0.11213 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 965 5 6.00696 0.20464 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 966 5 5.40138 0.11184 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 967 5 2.59719 0.29318 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 968 5 2.57488 0.22587 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 969 5 0.16844 0.19119 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi 970 6 7.39516 0.07475 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 971 6 7.007 0.09285 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 972 6 6.90414 0.13454 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 973 6 6.57261 0.1606 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 974 6 6.00781 0.09114 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 975 6 6.00781 0.09114 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 976 6 5.39072 0.10901 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 977 6 5.38861 0.10972 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 978 6 5.38861 0.10972 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 979 6 5.06553 0.21856 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 980 6 5.00212 0.2515 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 981 6 4.98367 0.25221 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 982 6 4.96609 0.25206 ADHEr, GLU5K, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 983 6 4.96609 0.25206 ADHEr, G5SD, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 984 6 4.96599 0.2521 ADHEr, ASNS2, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 985 6 4.95562 0.24186 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 986 6 2.71835 0.29123 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE 987 6 2.66849 0.22473 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, RPE 988 6 2.66076 0.29216 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, TAL 989 6 1.85699 0.28717 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, SUCOAS 990 6 1.63724 0.03081 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 991 6 1.63724 0.03081 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 992 6 1.38263 0.33268 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 993 6 0.25855 0.07515 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi 994 7 7.86642 0.01651 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PYK 995 7 7.71509 0.0515 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, PPS 996 7 7.70416 0.03656 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 997 7 7.48515 0.04452 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 998 7 7.44181 0.09832 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 999 7 7.06656 0.04513 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 1000 7 7.00811 0.04002 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 1001 7 7.00811 0.04002 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 1002 7 7.00532 0.07752 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 1003 7 6.99105 0.04159 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 1004 7 6.96695 0.09776 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 1005 7 6.69345 0.1479 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1006 7 6.49322 0.12467 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPS 1007 7 6.43565 0.1244 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 1008 7 6.21891 0.18801 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PPS 1009 7 6.21891 0.18801 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 1010 7 6.21459 0.18835 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPS, TAL 1011 7 6.21064 0.18866 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPS, RPE 1012 7 6.16665 0.08397 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 1013 7 6.13458 0.01447 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 1014 7 6.13051 0.01457 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 1015 7 6.13051 0.01457 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 1016 7 5.49961 0.07232 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 1017 7 5.49821 0.07279 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 1018 7 5.49821 0.07279 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 1019 7 5.22113 0.16614 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1020 7 5.17418 0.18196 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 1021 7 5.15097 0.18978 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1022 7 4.01417 0.12149 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1023 7 3.75439 0.27459 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS 1024 7 3.75439 0.27459 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPS 1025 7 2.64048 0.21814 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, TAL 1026 7 2.64048 0.21814 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PPCK, TAL 1027 7 2.62716 0.22497 ADHEr, GLYCL, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TAL 1028 7 1.5697 0.24425 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1029 7 1.09053 0.33566 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PPS 1030 7 1.09053 0.33566 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 1031 7 0.78572 0.33663 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, TAL 1032 7 0.50621 0.33751 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, RPE 1033 8 7.88716 0.0204 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 1034 8 7.88653 0.02051 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, POX 1035 8 7.88026 0.02165 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1036 8 7.84104 0.02874 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, PPS 1037 8 7.80925 0.03448 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 1038 8 7.80925 0.03448 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 1039 8 7.67439 0.05735 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 1040 8 7.42051 0.09374 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPS 1041 8 7.32674 0.0933 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 1042 8 6.93593 0.04641 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1043 8 6.58791 0.09796 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 1044 8 6.58791 0.09796 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PPS 1045 8 6.5802 0.09979 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPS, TAL 1046 8 6.57291 0.10152 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPS, RPE 1047 8 5.75656 0.15131 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1048 8 5.74602 0.16073 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1049 8 5.67321 0.16148 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1050 8 5.60169 0.03793 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 1051 8 5.60169 0.03793 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 1052 8 5.56692 0.04965 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 1053 8 5.56692 0.04965 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, PYK 1054 8 5.50925 0.07241 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1055 8 5.50597 0.07191 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1056 8 5.50242 0.07138 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1057 8 5.50242 0.07138 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1058 8 5.44507 0.0907 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1059 8 5.37306 0.11496 ADHEr, DAAD, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PRO1z 1060 8 5.37306 0.11496 ADHEr, ALAR, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PRO1z 1061 8 5.33606 0.12742 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PYK 1062 8 5.17764 0.18079 ADHEr, DAAD, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PRO1z 1063 8 5.17764 0.18079 ADHEr, ALAR, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PRO1z 1064 8 5.17492 0.2398 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1065 8 4.65995 0.20434 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPS, RPE 1066 8 4.6123 0.20163 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPS, TAL 1067 8 4.56149 0.19874 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, PPS 1068 8 4.13777 0.23628 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, RPE 1069 8 4.06785 0.23403 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, TAL 1070 8 4.04062 0.10178 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PDH, PFLi, PPS 1071 8 4.04062 0.10178 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PDH, PFLi, PPS 1072 8 3.9927 0.23161 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 1073 8 3.9927 0.23161 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PPS 1074 8 2.03637 0.11796 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FBP, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1075 8 1.98516 0.11932 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FBP, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1076 8 1.93743 0.12058 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FBP, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1077 8 1.76983 0.24401 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1078 8 1.5107 0.31956 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1079 8 1.5107 0.31956 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, PGDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1080 8 1.45644 0.3201 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PPS, TAL 1081 8 1.45644 0.3201 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, TAL 1082 3 0.165681142 0.248770484 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1083 3 2.792461067 0.310192487 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D 1084 4 0.245091981 0.278197481 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D 1085 4 1.163607813 0.384018912 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D 1086 4 2.27265597 0.332308612 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6 1087 4 1.260046787 0.384504476 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TKT1 1088 4 1.454891201 0.378757536 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TKT2 1089 4 2.042634808 0.153142196 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1090 4 2.041701304 0.149789093 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 1091 4 0.270967943 0.244721556 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 1092 4 2.907366868 0.244293538 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 1093 4 0.363337262 0.340044232 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH 1094 4 2.907366868 0.244293538 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 1095 4 2.085082479 0.31290916 ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 1096 4 2.881545955 0.259101938 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 1097 4 3.647199605 0.168610416 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1098 4 2.774595569 0.320438424 ADHEr, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6 1099 4 3.335904914 0.317384404 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 1100 4 3.331989713 0.319255557 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 1101 4 2.224731454 0.327457036 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 1102 4 0.23734264 0.246014656 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 1103 4 0.454138927 0.26931886 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 1104 4 0.413317212 0.38682004 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS 1105 4 2.860294682 0.306273023 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, RPE 1106 4 2.808840722 0.300798688 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D 1107 4 2.817574813 0.295789651 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D 1108 4 2.916137696 0.239263432 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 1109 4 2.973865652 0.206156212 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK 1110 4 2.892050239 0.30443817 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TKT2 1111 4 0.203360099 0.247321495 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 1112 4 2.117903686 0.331070152 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 1113 4 0.34884992 0.271004016 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 1114 4 2.828154021 0.308130129 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TAL 1115 4 0.203360099 0.247321495 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 1116 4 2.117903686 0.331070152 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 1117 4 0.34884992 0.271004016 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 1118 4 2.828154021 0.308130129 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TKT1 1119 5 3.948360602 0.222825522 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 1120 5 3.966967048 0.182343827 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 1121 5 3.752898719 0.126622688 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 1122 5 4.408716092 0.258053531 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1123 5 6.415221004 0.039824926 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1124 5 2.983060356 0.241650921 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 1125 5 2.997718029 0.231538695 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT2 1126 5 2.937396425 0.227071464 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1127 5 3.001461104 0.190330107 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1128 5 2.935886887 0.22793719 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1129 5 3.081083028 0.144666606 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1130 5 2.988449413 0.197792365 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1131 5 2.948350239 0.234817401 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1132 5 3.101419157 0.133003752 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1133 5 2.948350239 0.234817401 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT1 1134 5 2.983060356 0.241650921 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TKT2 1135 5 2.916137696 0.239263432 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, ME2 1136 5 3.711787388 0.165696592 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 1137 5 3.457829994 0.311699463 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 1138 5 3.451407023 0.315392099 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 1139 5 3.543757983 0.262298527 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TKT2 1140 5 3.445461549 0.265025086 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 1141 5 3.609567252 0.224464061 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TKT2 1142 5 3.691174432 0.166626529 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 1143 5 3.065706296 0.153485225 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1144 5 3.071383178 0.15022951 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1145 5 5.367175665 0.178044995 ADHEr, CBMK2, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 1146 5 5.888703714 0.106589745 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 1147 5 3.110919215 0.148780301 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 1148 5 2.958795095 0.242498072 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 1149 5 2.958795095 0.242498072 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 1150 5 2.936051582 0.257223558 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE 1151 5 3.418935049 0.313512999 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 1152 5 3.413158878 0.316629525 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 1153 5 2.967063614 0.237144547 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 1154 5 3.018085814 0.204109778 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 1155 5 3.009552774 0.185689501 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 1156 5 3.009552774 0.185689501 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 1157 5 2.991038247 0.23614703 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 1158 5 2.961772661 0.256337155 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TKT2 1159 5 3.106778446 0.151550201 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PGI 1160 5 3.04583421 0.164881948 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 1161 5 3.038870487 0.203147899 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 1162 5 3.886386663 0.225053566 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 1163 5 3.670328799 0.167566962 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 1164 5 3.480501908 0.264053132 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 1165 5 3.554829627 0.226273464 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 1166 5 2.942885577 0.238150528 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 1167 5 2.99710338 0.20508081 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 1168 5 3.964901837 0.267840742 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1169 5 3.00074032 0.229453637 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT2 1170 5 4.557091208 0.201359081 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1171 5 2.935925119 0.227915263 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1172 5 2.97971305 0.22895456 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1173 5 2.958777052 0.228457649 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1174 5 3.886386663 0.225053566 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 1175 5 2.934359102 0.243351183 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 1176 5 2.934359102 0.243351183 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TKT1 1177 5 3.670328799 0.167566962 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 1178 5 3.379584856 0.31534776 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 1179 5 3.374609422 0.317876699 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 1180 5 3.480501908 0.264053132 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TKT1 1181 5 3.554829627 0.226273464 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TKT1 1182 5 2.942885577 0.238150528 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 1183 5 2.99710338 0.20508081 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 1184 5 2.958777052 0.228457649 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT1

TABLE 15 Knockout strain designs for increased production of adipate, showing yields of adipate and biomass. New Num Adipate. Design ID KO Yield Biomass Rxnlist 1 3 5.47908 0.34054 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6 2 3 4.26684 0.28031 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK 3 3 2.76166 0.38773 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D 4 3 1.54669 0.25966 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI 5 3 1.33726 0.37808 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D 6 3 0.83242 0.38953 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D 7 4 7.52636 0.16586 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 8 4 6.84269 0.27849 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 9 4 6.5702 0.20631 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 10 4 6.16994 0.16614 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 11 4 6.0882 0.30766 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 12 4 5.87407 0.22728 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 13 4 5.68406 0.28176 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 14 4 5.62555 0.33704 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 15 4 5.60596 0.30416 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 16 4 5.55606 0.3387 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 17 4 5.54557 0.32148 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 18 4 5.16028 0.24175 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 19 4 4.91511 0.27067 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 20 4 4.3568 0.24592 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK 21 4 4.35358 0.27902 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 22 4 4.34095 0.25198 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 23 4 4.34095 0.25198 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 24 4 4.28493 0.2734 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 25 4 4.0889 0.34834 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 26 4 3.25969 0.38161 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, RPE 27 4 3.18007 0.37054 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 28 4 3.11658 0.34524 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 29 4 3.02411 0.3845 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TAL 30 4 1.1506 0.38695 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 31 4 0.99936 0.38818 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL 32 5 7.63281 0.14897 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 33 5 7.60368 0.23979 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 34 5 7.25714 0.17876 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 35 5 7.21061 0.18996 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 36 5 7.21061 0.18996 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 37 5 7.11676 0.21254 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 38 5 7.10568 0.21521 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 39 5 6.9706 0.24771 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 40 5 6.90675 0.27577 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 41 5 6.83498 0.1681 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 42 5 6.80758 0.29402 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 43 5 6.79015 0.29114 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 44 5 6.76743 0.17785 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 45 5 6.76201 0.23293 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 46 5 6.66991 0.23493 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 47 5 6.66754 0.2967 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 48 5 6.57746 0.21333 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 49 5 6.34963 0.21785 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 50 5 6.225 0.14772 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 51 5 6.18982 0.20058 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 52 5 6.18254 0.21218 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 53 5 6.18254 0.21218 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 54 5 5.99792 0.19177 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 55 5 5.97051 0.22537 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 56 5 5.92744 0.32733 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 57 5 5.92472 0.22627 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 58 5 5.81113 0.24533 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 59 5 5.80132 0.28014 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 60 5 5.74556 0.28091 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 61 5 5.74235 0.20973 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 62 5 5.73575 0.30136 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 63 5 5.72421 0.22208 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 64 5 5.72421 0.22208 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 65 5 5.68542 0.31766 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 66 5 5.67414 0.30269 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 67 5 5.62871 0.29764 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 68 5 5.61913 0.31947 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 69 5 5.56433 0.06187 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 70 5 5.53618 0.32417 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 71 5 5.36114 0.24084 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, RPE 72 5 5.35732 0.32317 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 73 5 5.29193 0.25262 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 74 5 5.26552 0.24127 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TAL 75 5 5.23886 0.36027 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS 76 5 5.2123 0.3202 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 77 5 5.20628 0.31113 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 78 5 5.20628 0.31113 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 79 5 5.00885 0.16853 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 80 5 4.73325 0.11896 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 81 5 4.71871 0.12544 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 82 5 4.71871 0.12544 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 83 5 4.46543 0.20438 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 84 5 4.45303 0.23609 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 85 5 4.44799 0.21105 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 86 5 4.43313 0.21674 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 87 5 4.43313 0.21674 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK 88 5 4.43289 0.24479 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 89 5 4.42239 0.22084 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 90 5 4.4202 0.25027 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 91 5 4.4202 0.25027 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 92 5 4.41922 0.25069 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 93 5 4.41348 0.22425 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 94 5 4.41348 0.22425 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 95 5 4.3742 0.27012 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 96 5 4.34566 0.25018 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 97 5 4.22695 0.31979 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH 98 5 4.21297 0.36989 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 99 5 4.19799 0.34618 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 100 5 4.15986 0.32121 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 101 5 4.14613 0.34721 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL 102 5 4.14548 0.36885 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 103 5 4.09366 0.36854 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 104 5 4.03694 0.36821 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 105 5 4.03694 0.36821 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 106 5 3.55579 0.34037 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 107 5 3.35244 0.11579 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 108 5 3.34785 0.34268 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 109 5 2.86477 0.08801 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, LDH_D, PGI 110 5 1.41816 0.36252 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL 111 5 1.41816 0.36252 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, TAL 112 6 8.40974 0.12863 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 113 6 8.3656 0.13555 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 114 6 8.3656 0.13555 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 115 6 8.30583 0.11621 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 116 6 8.24494 0.15445 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 117 6 7.99084 0.19426 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 118 6 7.9508 0.20053 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 119 6 7.92831 0.12763 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 120 6 7.91305 0.13531 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 121 6 7.91305 0.13531 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 122 6 7.87012 0.02274 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 123 6 7.7587 0.21695 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 124 6 7.75003 0.03607 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 125 6 7.74149 0.21948 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 126 6 7.7368 0.0672 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 127 6 7.72197 0.07098 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 128 6 7.72197 0.07098 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 129 6 7.67273 0.08355 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 130 6 7.64843 0.19881 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 131 6 7.61824 0.14232 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 132 6 7.60825 0.2542 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 133 6 7.5467 0.16899 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 134 6 7.48349 0.12429 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 135 6 7.4685 0.07894 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 136 6 7.4685 0.07894 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 137 6 7.44298 0.08037 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 138 6 7.40415 0.13677 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 139 6 7.4 0.14438 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 140 6 7.36241 0.15343 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 141 6 7.36241 0.15343 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 142 6 7.27527 0.1744 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 143 6 7.27448 0.17459 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 144 6 7.24864 0.17893 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 145 6 7.24278 0.26146 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 146 6 7.20895 0.28496 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 147 6 7.18819 0.12101 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 148 6 7.17088 0.20914 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 149 6 7.15564 0.2082 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 150 6 7.1458 0.12325 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 151 6 7.13909 0.20717 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 152 6 7.12504 0.22071 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 153 6 7.10894 0.21971 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 154 6 7.09146 0.21863 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 155 6 7.09146 0.21863 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 156 6 7.0863 0.31638 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 157 6 7.06893 0.22405 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 158 6 7.054 0.1365 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 159 6 7.02653 0.24555 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 160 6 6.99568 0.14491 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 161 6 6.92353 0.16046 ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 162 6 6.90243 0.27063 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 163 6 6.8314 0.18819 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 164 6 6.79251 0.30763 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 165 6 6.70257 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 166 6 6.70257 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 167 6 6.66743 0.21154 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 168 6 6.63518 0.21218 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 169 6 6.48093 0.19172 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 170 6 6.48093 0.19172 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK 171 6 6.44865 0.19659 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 172 6 6.44275 0.19249 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 173 6 6.40767 0.1932 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 174 6 6.33204 0.06396 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 175 6 6.28774 0.02127 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 176 6 6.27764 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 177 6 6.27764 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH 178 6 6.21873 0.32483 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 179 6 6.16484 0.32529 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 180 6 6.12301 0.15589 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 181 6 6.09151 0.3086 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 182 6 6.08785 0.16598 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 183 6 6.08785 0.16598 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 184 6 6.07929 0.19015 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 185 6 6.0681 0.17164 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 186 6 6.04302 0.20189 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 187 6 6.01911 0.18569 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK 188 6 6.01911 0.18569 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK 189 6 5.98595 0.1952 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 190 6 5.93003 0.21123 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 191 6 5.91322 0.24391 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 192 6 5.89537 0.30664 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 193 6 5.86467 0.24459 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 194 6 5.8616 0.12855 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 195 6 5.8616 0.12855 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 196 6 5.75652 0.29464 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 197 6 5.71417 0.25845 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 198 6 5.69588 0.29606 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 199 6 5.53662 0.35787 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, RPE 200 6 5.4724 0.31504 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE 201 6 5.46402 0.30945 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE 202 6 5.46402 0.30945 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE 203 6 5.39509 0.35901 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, TAL 204 6 5.34939 0.31748 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, TAL 205 6 5.34143 0.31025 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, TAL 206 6 5.34143 0.31025 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, TAL 207 6 5.07203 0.20521 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 208 6 5.07203 0.20521 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 209 6 5.04668 0.20656 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, TAL 210 6 5.04668 0.20656 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, TAL 211 6 5.02327 0.2078 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, RPE 212 6 5.02327 0.2078 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, RPE 213 6 4.96889 0.09918 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 214 6 4.92469 0.33322 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 215 6 4.92469 0.33322 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 216 6 4.8531 0.05616 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 217 6 4.8531 0.05616 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 218 6 4.80931 0.34014 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 219 6 4.69982 0.3467 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 220 6 4.69121 0.11806 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 221 6 4.64152 0.13706 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 222 6 4.64152 0.13706 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 223 6 4.6299 0.1415 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 224 6 4.6299 0.1415 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 225 6 4.60999 0.16834 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 226 6 4.60999 0.16834 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 227 6 4.52953 0.20307 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 228 6 4.5125 0.21043 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 229 6 4.50129 0.21526 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 230 6 4.50129 0.21526 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 231 6 4.49048 0.21993 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 232 6 4.48211 0.22354 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, RPE 233 6 4.48211 0.22354 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, RPE 234 6 4.42882 0.24654 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 235 6 4.36373 0.24327 ADHEr, FUM, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 236 6 4.35757 0.26123 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 237 6 4.31718 0.27765 ADHEr, ASNS2, GLU5K, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 238 6 4.31718 0.27765 ADHEr, ASNS2, G5SD, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 239 6 4.2573 0.32058 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 240 6 4.22017 0.33524 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 241 6 4.17617 0.33499 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 242 6 4.12454 0.33472 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 243 6 4.12454 0.33472 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 244 6 3.51205 0.21436 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 245 6 3.23372 0.26787 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 246 6 2.95584 0.24016 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPS 247 6 2.95584 0.24016 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPS 248 7 9.10608 0.01953 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 249 7 9.10608 0.01953 ADHEr, FUM, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 250 7 9.00855 0.03482 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 251 7 8.9957 0.03683 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 252 7 8.9957 0.03683 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 253 7 8.98751 0.03811 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 254 7 8.98549 0.03843 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 255 7 8.78817 0.06934 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 256 7 8.78695 0.06953 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 257 7 8.78371 0.07004 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 258 7 8.78071 0.07051 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 259 7 8.7615 0.07352 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 260 7 8.7615 0.07352 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 261 7 8.5647 0.10435 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 262 7 8.54703 0.10712 ADHEr, GLCpts, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 263 7 8.53424 0.10913 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 264 7 8.53424 0.10913 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 265 7 8.50919 0.10634 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 266 7 8.50798 0.11324 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 267 7 8.50798 0.11324 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 268 7 8.43629 0.12447 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 269 7 8.38405 0.13266 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 270 7 8.37888 0.03978 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 271 7 8.29239 0.14702 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 272 7 8.27109 0.10802 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 273 7 8.25238 0.15328 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 274 7 8.24277 0.01559 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 275 7 8.13676 0.03579 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 276 7 8.112 0.11376 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 277 7 8.112 0.11376 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 278 7 8.02815 0.13154 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 279 7 8.00984 0.13929 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 280 7 8.0064 0.13951 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 281 7 8.0064 0.13951 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 282 7 7.98007 0.18432 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 283 7 7.97463 0.15783 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 284 7 7.90344 0.19562 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 285 7 7.89808 0.01471 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 286 7 7.89024 0.02802 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 287 7 7.88378 0.02967 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 288 7 7.88242 0.11605 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 289 7 7.87634 0.01837 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 290 7 7.87634 0.01837 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK 291 7 7.84906 0.21647 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 292 7 7.84582 0.02225 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 293 7 7.81872 0.2081 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPS 294 7 7.7627 0.0571 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 295 7 7.7627 0.0571 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 296 7 7.76232 0.02662 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 297 7 7.74907 0.0281 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 298 7 7.74444 0.06699 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 299 7 7.71368 0.10674 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 300 7 7.69617 0.04384 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 301 7 7.69209 0.0741 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 302 7 7.61698 0.05527 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 303 7 7.58851 0.09902 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 304 7 7.55893 0.07788 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 305 7 7.55773 0.07778 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 306 7 7.55641 0.07767 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 307 7 7.55604 0.07774 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 308 7 7.52827 0.18666 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PPS 309 7 7.5043 0.12303 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 310 7 7.50321 0.07168 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 311 7 7.50183 0.1239 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 312 7 7.49954 0.12472 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 313 7 7.44132 0.08061 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 314 7 7.43036 0.11712 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 315 7 7.38132 0.14888 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 316 7 7.37291 0.17014 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 317 7 7.37059 0.09082 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 318 7 7.3166 0.16445 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 319 7 7.2905 0.10237 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 320 7 7.24864 0.17893 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 321 7 7.2288 0.11128 ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 322 7 7.22725 0.1115 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 323 7 7.21589 0.1796 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 324 7 7.21263 0.18991 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TAL 325 7 7.20753 0.1999 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 326 7 7.20507 0.13919 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 327 7 7.20507 0.13919 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 328 7 7.20053 0.0557 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 329 7 7.20053 0.0557 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 330 7 7.19596 0.14141 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 331 7 7.19261 0.19908 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 332 7 7.18739 0.14349 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 333 7 7.18582 0.18022 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 334 7 7.18081 0.1906 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 335 7 7.17639 0.19819 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 336 7 7.17639 0.19819 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 337 7 7.15844 0.21228 ADHEr, FUM, GLU5K, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 338 7 7.15844 0.21228 ADHEr, FUM, G5SD, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 339 7 7.15832 0.21231 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 340 7 7.15023 0.12261 ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 341 7 7.14754 0.30973 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 342 7 7.12499 0.05298 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 343 7 7.12287 0.13074 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 344 7 7.12019 0.22193 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 345 7 7.11351 0.16642 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 346 7 6.91657 0.2887 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, PPS 347 7 6.89939 0.23701 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 348 7 6.89939 0.23701 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 349 7 6.89939 0.23701 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 350 7 6.84379 0.18963 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 351 7 6.75658 0.30629 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE 352 7 6.62545 0.08375 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 353 7 6.61503 0.30219 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL 354 7 6.5251 0.02706 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 355 7 6.50064 0.04761 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 356 7 6.49117 0.05032 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 357 7 6.49117 0.05032 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 358 7 6.46411 0.29781 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 359 7 6.46411 0.29781 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS 360 7 6.37646 0.08322 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 361 7 6.37646 0.08322 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 362 7 6.33505 0.15513 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH, PGI 363 7 6.30836 0.31643 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 364 7 6.30836 0.31643 ADHEr, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 365 7 6.30836 0.31643 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, PGDH, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 366 7 6.30836 0.31643 ADHEr, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 367 7 6.29139 0.03885 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 368 7 6.27848 0.32143 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 369 7 6.27504 0.1561 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, TAL 370 7 6.19234 0.13601 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 371 7 6.19234 0.13601 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 372 7 6.18835 0.15484 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 373 7 6.16073 0.14508 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 374 7 6.16073 0.14508 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, PYK 375 7 6.15763 0.16479 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, RPE 376 7 6.15763 0.16479 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, RPE 377 7 6.14691 0.14904 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK 378 7 6.14691 0.14904 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK 379 7 6.14046 0.17035 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 380 7 6.13285 0.17281 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 381 7 6.09969 0.18355 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 382 7 6.09969 0.18355 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 383 7 6.07495 0.19156 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 384 7 6.02503 0.20772 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 385 7 5.9952 0.19254 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 386 7 5.9868 0.32178 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 387 7 5.98012 0.20938 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 388 7 5.94711 0.3261 ADHEr, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 389 7 5.94711 0.3261 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 390 7 5.93766 0.22464 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, THD2 and/or GLUDy 391 7 5.84213 0.21172 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 392 7 5.77732 0.09217 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 393 7 5.77732 0.09217 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 394 7 5.7407 0.18622 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 395 7 5.72608 0.09261 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 396 7 5.67891 0.09302 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 397 7 5.62569 0.20722 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 398 7 5.60804 0.32285 ADHEr, GLU5K, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 399 7 5.60804 0.32285 ADHEr, G5SD, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 400 7 5.60791 0.32289 ADHEr, ASNS2, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 401 7 5.59783 0.33545 ADHEr, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 402 7 5.59783 0.33545 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 403 7 5.58104 0.23062 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 404 7 5.58104 0.23062 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 405 7 5.35846 0.23124 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 406 7 5.27565 0.07793 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 407 7 5.19178 0.1965 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, TAL 408 7 5.19178 0.1965 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, TAL 409 7 5.16412 0.3061 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 410 7 5.16412 0.3061 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 411 7 5.15646 0.16031 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, TAL 412 7 5.14711 0.23182 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 413 7 5.06593 0.18784 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 414 7 5.06354 0.16677 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLYCL, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 415 7 5.04267 0.18882 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 416 7 5.02125 0.18972 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 417 7 4.56087 0.18955 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 418 7 4.53442 0.18932 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 419 7 4.50549 0.18907 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 420 7 4.50549 0.18907 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 421 7 4.43945 0.24195 ADHEr, FUM, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 422 7 4.33649 0.2698 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, G5SD, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 423 7 4.33649 0.2698 ADHEr, ASNS2, FUM, GLU5K, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 424 7 3.82299 0.23376 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 425 7 3.40957 0.10927 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 426 7 3.40957 0.10927 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 427 7 3.30702 0.26731 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 428 7 1.7546 0.28013 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, FUM, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 429 7 0.1401 0.25687 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 430 7 0.13962 0.25599 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 431 7 0.13909 0.25503 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 432 7 0.13909 0.25503 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 433 3 0.331362284 0.248770484 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 434 3 4.1886916 0.310192487 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D 435 4 2.773932742 0.386261 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, LDH_D 436 4 2.792658751 0.384018912 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D 437 4 5.490131382 0.33737393 ADHEr, CBMK2, LDH_D, NADH6 438 4 6.078666008 0.168610416 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 439 4 0.474685279 0.246014656 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 440 4 0.406720198 0.247321495 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 441 4 0.406720198 0.247321495 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 442 4 0.541935885 0.244721556 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 443 4 4.227003016 0.295544651 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D 444 4 2.774411941 0.386203624 ADHEr, ATPS4r, G5SD, LDH_D 445 4 2.774411941 0.386203624 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLU5K, LDH_D 446 4 2.552977098 0.152232967 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 447 4 5.500068328 0.33452449 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 448 4 4.226362219 0.295789651 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D 449 4 0.999358709 0.388175844 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT1 450 4 1.300899111 0.38573732 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT2 451 4 4.374206544 0.239263432 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 452 4 4.29486095 0.269600115 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 453 4 4.488943189 0.195395474 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK 454 4 4.312306765 0.279635371 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 455 4 4.312306765 0.279635371 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 456 4 4.394666553 0.278410255 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 457 4 4.290442023 0.306273023 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, RPE 458 4 4.242231032 0.308130129 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TAL 459 4 3.02411229 0.384504476 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TKT1 460 4 5.556064858 0.338701395 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 461 4 4.242231032 0.308130129 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TKT1 462 4 3.491738883 0.378757536 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TKT2 463 4 5.694356782 0.335394947 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 464 4 4.338075359 0.30443817 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TKT2 465 5 3.269904021 0.380186443 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, LDH_D, RPE 466 5 3.035292503 0.383059918 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TAL 467 5 2.786583612 0.384746295 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, GLU5K, LDH_D 468 5 3.035292503 0.383059918 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TKT1 469 5 4.891772757 0.345085032 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 470 5 4.906959994 0.170872463 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 471 5 2.80469336 0.382577993 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D 472 5 4.199370617 0.306109514 ADHEr, ASNS2, CBMK2, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D 473 5 3.285503322 0.378014123 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D, RPE 474 5 3.052359629 0.380854732 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D, TAL 475 5 2.805163465 0.382521707 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, G5SD, LDH_D 476 5 4.199487305 0.3060649 ADHEr, CBMK2, FRD and/or SUCD4, G5SD, LDH_D 477 5 2.805163465 0.382521707 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, GLU5K, LDH_D 478 5 4.199487305 0.3060649 ADHEr, CBMK2, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLU5K, LDH_D 479 5 5.566341358 0.335567361 ADHEr, CBMK2, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 480 5 6.853869476 0.27580388 ADHEr, CBMK2, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 481 5 3.052359629 0.380854732 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D, TKT1 482 5 5.566341358 0.335567361 ADHEr, CBMK2, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 483 5 3.515194954 0.375215574 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D, TKT2 484 5 4.886253722 0.208900511 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 485 5 4.621960711 0.144538077 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 486 5 6.151957387 0.166626529 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 487 5 6.117214665 0.167566962 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 488 5 0.436376298 0.238196669 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PGDH, TAL 489 5 6.117214665 0.167566962 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 490 5 0.436376298 0.238196669 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PGDH, TKT1 491 5 6.186312313 0.165696592 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 492 5 5.556162772 0.318439293 ADHEr, CBMK2, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 493 5 4.886253722 0.208900511 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 494 5 4.613740943 0.14768079 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 495 5 6.088195155 0.307660476 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 496 5 5.684064939 0.281763084 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 497 5 4.673184878 0.145745102 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PGI 498 5 4.572772914 0.163344346 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 499 5 4.382533025 0.251079405 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 500 5 4.382533025 0.251079405 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 501 5 4.457618973 0.24945663 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 502 5 4.374206544 0.239263432 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, ME2 503 5 4.324805294 0.29144049 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, RPE 504 5 4.278495915 0.29338381 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, TAL 505 5 5.619129051 0.319468644 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 506 5 1.418161594 0.362515745 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, TKT1 507 5 1.418161594 0.362515745 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TKT1 508 5 4.278495915 0.29338381 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, TKT1 509 5 5.750964716 0.315868237 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 510 5 4.370505222 0.289522745 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, TKT2 511 5 2.786583612 0.384746295 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, G5SD, LDH_D 512 5 3.270303172 0.380130859 ADHEr, ATPS4r, G5SD, LDH_D, RPE 513 5 3.035729231 0.38300349 ADHEr, ATPS4r, G5SD, LDH_D, TAL 514 5 3.035729231 0.38300349 ADHEr, ATPS4r, G5SD, LDH_D, TKT1 515 5 3.270303172 0.380130859 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLU5K, LDH_D, RPE 516 5 3.035729231 0.38300349 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLU5K, LDH_D, TAL 517 5 4.101998016 0.149473222 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 518 5 5.510369128 0.331570715 ADHEr, CBMK2, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 519 5 3.359019108 0.150796918 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 520 5 4.301255739 0.267155156 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 521 5 4.146125845 0.347209192 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT1 522 5 4.24954345 0.345156537 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT2 523 5 5.64062493 0.332159859 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 524 5 5.573829893 0.333283574 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 525 5 6.871954799 0.271451843 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 526 5 1.026318237 0.371585169 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, TAL 527 5 1.026318237 0.371585169 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL 528 5 4.321580803 0.292832307 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 529 5 4.27640137 0.294235511 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL 530 5 4.292100506 0.270655532 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 531 5 5.573829893 0.333283574 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 532 5 1.026318237 0.371585169 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, TKT1 533 5 1.026318237 0.371585169 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TKT1 534 5 4.27640137 0.294235511 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT1 535 5 4.093661719 0.368542577 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT1 536 5 5.706971061 0.331043695 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 537 5 4.366331362 0.291442423 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT2 538 5 4.197378033 0.36914891 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT2 539 5 6.584217406 0.204283888 ADHEr, ASPT, CBMK2, LDH_D, MDH 540 5 4.679174494 0.143073998 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 541 5 4.572772914 0.163344346 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 542 5 4.382533025 0.251079405 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TAL 543 5 4.382533025 0.251079405 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TKT1 544 5 4.457618973 0.24945663 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TKT2 545 5 4.450595421 0.237144547 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 546 5 4.414328365 0.238150528 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 547 5 6.807575806 0.294019202 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 548 5 5.745562276 0.280910173 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TKT1 549 5 4.414328365 0.238150528 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 550 5 6.455745341 0.299423269 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 551 5 5.856779801 0.27936769 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TKT2 552 5 4.486557371 0.23614703 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 553 5 6.254106519 0.315300181 ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 554 5 4.339242812 0.268682419 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TAL 555 5 6.224794308 0.229694348 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 556 5 6.876353164 0.277060587 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 557 5 7.122630133 0.211129547 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi 558 5 4.216706856 0.262624991 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 559 5 5.563197905 0.034931763 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 560 5 5.66839105 0.263566425 ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 561 5 4.552158784 0.193305823 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 562 5 4.522175259 0.194296957 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 563 5 5.924716044 0.226273464 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TKT1 564 5 5.265518204 0.241270472 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TKT1 565 5 4.522175259 0.194296957 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 566 5 6.01594542 0.224464061 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TKT2 567 5 5.456414614 0.240407987 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TKT2 568 5 4.581837961 0.192324751 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 569 5 3.352437372 0.115790546 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 570 5 4.568751314 0.164881948 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 571 5 4.379456454 0.26785091 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE 572 5 3.035729231 0.38300349 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLU5K, LDH_D, TKT1 573 5 6.876353164 0.277060587 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TKT1 574 5 4.339242812 0.268682419 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TKT1 575 5 4.419421961 0.267024532 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TKT2 576 5 6.185324416 0.166037364 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, TKT2 577 5 6.936871903 0.274483161 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TKT2 578 6 7.614634412 0.238178822 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 579 6 7.603679301 0.239793337 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 580 6 7.269154045 0.188693079 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, TKT2 581 6 7.539172655 0.163831584 ADHEr, ASNS2, CBMK2, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 582 6 7.539312732 0.163809352 ADHEr, CBMK2, G5SD, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 583 6 7.539312732 0.163809352 ADHEr, CBMK2, GLU5K, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 584 6 7.497875069 0.097945448 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 585 6 7.316598461 0.164453176 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 586 6 7.269154045 0.188693079 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, TKT2 587 6 7.389036066 0.088156259 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 588 6 8.258765764 0.152284822 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 589 6 8.999143093 0.036289126 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy

TABLE 16 Knockout strain designs for increased production of HMDA, showing yields of HMDA and biomass. New Num HMDA. Design ID KO Yield Biomass Rxnlist 1 3 2.32302 0.35737 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6 2 3 2.12864 0.28397 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK 3 3 1.2553 0.38773 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D 4 3 1.11254 0.26898 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D 5 3 0.67068 0.37924 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D 6 3 0.57155 0.26988 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI 7 3 0.27747 0.38953 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D 8 4 4.46145 0.20591 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 9 4 4.38802 0.23398 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D 10 4 4.03852 0.23697 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 11 4 3.73656 0.30662 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 12 4 3.05653 0.20692 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK 13 4 2.59406 0.20532 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 14 4 2.58406 0.27187 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 15 4 2.46512 0.26229 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 16 4 2.41847 0.29351 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 17 4 2.38828 0.35417 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 18 4 2.29878 0.17947 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 19 4 2.17588 0.24785 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 20 4 2.14745 0.26084 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 21 4 2.03987 0.35185 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 22 4 1.48168 0.38161 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, RPE 23 4 1.47082 0.28924 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 24 4 1.3746 0.3845 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TAL 25 4 1.26025 0.2616 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, SUCOAS 26 4 0.939 0.26603 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 27 4 0.76149 0.2867 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D 28 4 0.38353 0.38695 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 29 4 0.33312 0.38818 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL 30 5 5.53962 0.16718 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 31 5 5.40224 0.22385 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 32 5 5.13405 0.1802 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 33 5 5.0304 0.08351 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK 34 5 4.96585 0.07704 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 35 5 4.88127 0.20295 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 36 5 4.78114 0.2037 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 37 5 4.75518 0.09361 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 38 5 4.61203 0.20383 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 39 5 4.60391 0.15144 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 40 5 4.56119 0.16777 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 41 5 4.52834 0.20359 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 42 5 4.51845 0.20259 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 43 5 4.46585 0.23056 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 44 5 4.45522 0.22919 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS 45 5 4.44183 0.21341 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 46 5 4.44155 0.21352 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D 47 5 4.42059 0.20565 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 48 5 4.36907 0.15859 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 49 5 4.36067 0.16481 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 50 5 4.33827 0.24026 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 51 5 4.24585 0.21569 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH 52 5 4.24585 0.21569 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH 53 5 4.24585 0.21569 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH 54 5 4.21843 0.08488 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 55 5 4.18265 0.21782 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 56 5 4.13301 0.24796 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 57 5 4.03737 0.23515 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 58 5 4.02056 0.22023 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 59 5 4.0188 0.18437 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 60 5 3.96576 0.20734 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 61 5 3.96576 0.20734 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 62 5 3.96266 0.23773 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 63 5 3.92623 0.22446 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 64 5 3.81332 0.27196 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 65 5 3.81332 0.27196 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH 66 5 3.79273 0.28229 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 67 5 3.77686 0.28031 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 68 5 3.74717 0.3358 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 69 5 3.69789 0.22154 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 70 5 3.69693 0.23186 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH 71 5 3.57925 0.1851 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 72 5 3.55622 0.22164 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 73 5 3.55622 0.22164 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 74 5 3.51036 0.26322 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 75 5 3.44912 0.18587 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 76 5 3.44912 0.18587 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 77 5 3.23914 0.31877 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6 78 5 3.23669 0.2512 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 79 5 3.22027 0.23733 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 80 5 3.21813 0.22145 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 81 5 3.20482 0.28717 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, SUCOAS 82 5 3.19987 0.14763 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 83 5 3.04087 0.23963 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 84 5 3.04087 0.23963 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 85 5 3.01019 0.28849 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 86 5 2.94161 0.20506 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 87 5 2.88011 0.33864 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 88 5 2.85293 0.25411 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 89 5 2.75034 0.26847 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 90 5 2.74759 0.33105 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 91 5 2.67997 0.17637 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 92 5 2.67853 0.21976 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 93 5 2.65374 0.15874 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, PPCK 94 5 2.65207 0.23435 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 95 5 2.64298 0.23937 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 96 5 2.63715 0.26997 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 97 5 2.60095 0.33049 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 98 5 2.52584 0.22167 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 99 5 2.5171 0.22752 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 100 5 2.48801 0.24981 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 101 5 2.47253 0.25734 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 102 5 2.47049 0.29207 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 103 5 2.38845 0.0995 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 104 5 2.3823 0.10498 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 105 5 2.3823 0.10498 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 106 5 2.37356 0.34412 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 107 5 2.36643 0.29114 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 108 5 2.33103 0.23832 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 109 5 2.32447 0.13422 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 110 5 2.29184 0.29402 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 111 5 2.282 0.28884 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 112 5 2.22251 0.2967 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 113 5 2.22197 0.24001 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 114 5 2.21206 0.24857 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 115 5 2.20561 0.23941 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 116 5 2.20149 0.22826 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 117 5 2.20149 0.22826 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 118 5 2.19372 0.24909 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 119 5 2.19132 0.23604 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 120 5 2.19132 0.23604 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK 121 5 2.18792 0.26941 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 122 5 2.18792 0.26941 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, RPE 123 5 2.18777 0.23875 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 124 5 2.09486 0.34975 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 125 5 1.89618 0.34765 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 126 5 1.74629 0.36027 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS 127 5 1.73743 0.3202 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 128 5 1.73543 0.31113 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 129 5 1.69405 0.23402 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 130 5 1.68439 0.23524 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, TAL 131 5 1.67549 0.23637 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, RPE 132 5 1.66962 0.16853 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 133 5 1.66579 0.35584 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 134 5 1.44831 0.25358 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, SUCOAS 135 5 1.40898 0.31979 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH 136 5 1.33078 0.25859 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, SUCOAS 137 5 1.28594 0.26157 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D 138 5 1.28594 0.26157 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS 139 5 1.15083 0.26676 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, SUCOAS 140 5 1.08556 0.26021 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 141 5 1.08281 0.26394 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 142 5 0.81325 0.32358 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS 143 5 0.73764 0.26814 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD5 144 5 0.73764 0.26814 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, THD5 145 6 6.49204 0.11612 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 146 6 6.18999 0.07445 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 147 6 6.1414 0.1578 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 148 6 5.80857 0.1099 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 149 6 5.62948 0.09192 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 150 6 5.60131 0.13875 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 151 6 5.59693 0.15008 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 152 6 5.56181 0.13846 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 153 6 5.52668 0.15619 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 154 6 5.52416 0.10076 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI 155 6 5.44943 0.16764 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 156 6 5.43906 0.17387 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, MDH 157 6 5.43906 0.17387 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, ICL, LDH_D, MDH 158 6 5.43906 0.17387 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MALS, MDH 159 6 5.4269 0.11474 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 160 6 5.39974 0.15728 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 161 6 5.39974 0.15728 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 162 6 5.36516 0.17457 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 163 6 5.29594 0.12992 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PYK 164 6 5.28218 0.07163 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 165 6 5.28218 0.07163 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK 166 6 5.27982 0.10569 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 167 6 5.27077 0.07217 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 168 6 5.26177 0.14053 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 169 6 5.26021 0.07267 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 170 6 5.22996 0.24218 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 171 6 5.22996 0.24218 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 172 6 5.10795 0.18114 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 173 6 5.07418 0.20379 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS 174 6 5.05205 0.12049 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, PPCK 175 6 5.02318 0.17043 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 176 6 5.02318 0.17043 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 177 6 4.96023 0.0152 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 178 6 4.96019 0.14703 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 179 6 4.95227 0.18511 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 180 6 4.94767 0.18905 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 181 6 4.94078 0.08876 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 182 6 4.88378 0.08315 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 183 6 4.88138 0.0499 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 184 6 4.8705 0.04951 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 185 6 4.86653 0.05103 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 186 6 4.86653 0.05103 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 187 6 4.85555 0.05127 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 188 6 4.81179 0.07918 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 189 6 4.80834 0.05481 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 190 6 4.80834 0.05481 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 191 6 4.80546 0.08184 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 192 6 4.79254 0.05156 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 193 6 4.7879 0.08109 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 194 6 4.7879 0.08109 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 195 6 4.7863 0.15759 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 196 6 4.78022 0.08403 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 197 6 4.78022 0.08403 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 198 6 4.75362 0.1717 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS 199 6 4.74482 0.14204 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 200 6 4.74482 0.14204 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 201 6 4.71665 0.15772 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 202 6 4.71665 0.15772 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 203 6 4.67938 0.12258 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 204 6 4.67056 0.08187 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 205 6 4.65509 0.08572 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 206 6 4.65177 0.09959 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 207 6 4.64856 0.19942 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 208 6 4.64527 0.14923 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 209 6 4.62501 0.24401 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 210 6 4.61569 0.16588 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 211 6 4.58364 0.20034 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 212 6 4.54149 0.17531 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 213 6 4.53277 0.1423 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 214 6 4.53052 0.2259 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, SUCOAS 215 6 4.52789 0.16756 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 216 6 4.52733 0.16694 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 217 6 4.50564 0.17546 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, SUCOAS 218 6 4.48785 0.20333 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 219 6 4.45673 0.0937 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 220 6 4.44964 0.1574 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 221 6 4.38551 0.17574 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MALS, MDH 222 6 4.38551 0.17574 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 223 6 4.38551 0.17574 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, ICL, LDH_D, MDH 224 6 4.3659 0.18135 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PYK 225 6 4.3659 0.18135 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 226 6 4.3659 0.18135 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 227 6 4.35016 0.23064 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, SUCOAS 228 6 4.34833 0.1713 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 229 6 4.34286 0.23323 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS 230 6 4.33401 0.17749 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 231 6 4.31842 0.21314 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 232 6 4.31842 0.21314 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, RPE 233 6 4.31842 0.21314 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 234 6 4.31517 0.18251 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 235 6 4.27405 0.08431 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 236 6 4.25521 0.17069 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 237 6 4.25521 0.17069 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 238 6 4.23738 0.22036 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI, THD5 239 6 4.23738 0.22036 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD5 240 6 4.21937 0.24412 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 241 6 4.20848 0.22638 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 242 6 4.1949 0.21515 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 243 6 4.193 0.22615 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 244 6 4.18464 0.18833 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 245 6 4.17022 0.12602 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 246 6 4.15452 0.23423 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI 247 6 4.13958 0.1401 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 248 6 4.12806 0.09037 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 249 6 4.10281 0.14798 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 250 6 4.09944 0.14944 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 251 6 4.09149 0.20644 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 252 6 4.08305 0.24974 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 253 6 4.07707 0.21283 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 254 6 4.07083 0.2483 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FDH2, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 255 6 4.0547 0.15755 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH, PGI 256 6 4.04976 0.14332 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGDH, PGI, PPCK 257 6 4.04925 0.17118 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 258 6 4.04925 0.17118 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 259 6 4.04921 0.20443 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 260 6 4.04921 0.20443 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 261 6 4.04701 0.15816 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, TAL 262 6 4.04276 0.14386 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, TAL 263 6 4.03993 0.15872 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, RPE 264 6 4.03632 0.14436 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK, RPE 265 6 4.01325 0.18677 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 266 6 3.99577 0.19434 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 267 6 3.97712 0.21218 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 268 6 3.96781 0.21154 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 269 6 3.95767 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 270 6 3.95767 0.21085 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH, PPCK 271 6 3.95117 0.22396 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 272 6 3.94143 0.22325 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 273 6 3.93082 0.22248 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH 274 6 3.92007 0.30764 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 275 6 3.90761 0.02965 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 276 6 3.90761 0.02965 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 277 6 3.88276 0.27815 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 278 6 3.87622 0.18142 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 279 6 3.85591 0.25493 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 280 6 3.85214 0.25656 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 281 6 3.80756 0.28917 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 282 6 3.80403 0.29078 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 283 6 3.80376 0.2909 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 284 6 3.79095 0.29004 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 285 6 3.78678 0.29189 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 286 6 3.74504 0.18693 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 287 6 3.66618 0.23348 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 288 6 3.65047 0.29574 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6 289 6 3.64636 0.29624 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6 290 6 3.61821 0.2978 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 291 6 3.59369 0.11801 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 292 6 3.56749 0.21671 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 293 6 3.56467 0.20357 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 294 6 3.56467 0.20357 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 295 6 3.54915 0.24121 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 296 6 3.54182 0.17698 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PGI, THD5 297 6 3.52871 0.18935 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 298 6 3.52871 0.18935 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK 299 6 3.48585 0.20551 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 300 6 3.46875 0.14666 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 301 6 3.39774 0.24244 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 302 6 3.34501 0.09944 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 303 6 3.21571 0.21219 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, SUCOAS 304 6 3.13882 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 305 6 3.13882 0.32432 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGDH 306 6 3.10937 0.32483 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 307 6 3.08568 0.30099 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 308 6 3.08242 0.32529 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 309 6 3.05396 0.31324 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 310 6 3.04084 0.1442 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 311 6 3.0331 0.26033 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 312 6 2.95572 0.06686 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 313 6 2.95209 0.20166 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK 314 6 2.93749 0.26369 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 315 6 2.93137 0.23554 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, LDH_D, PGI, THD5 316 6 2.93119 0.19434 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 317 6 2.92428 0.21637 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 318 6 2.90707 0.25203 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 319 6 2.88032 0.10845 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 320 6 2.85872 0.13782 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 321 6 2.83622 0.13278 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 322 6 2.83037 0.25344 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 323 6 2.73678 0.18763 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 324 6 2.73413 0.26033 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 325 6 2.70842 0.20327 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 326 6 2.68773 0.20429 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD5 327 6 2.68773 0.20429 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD5 328 6 2.6871 0.26683 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 329 6 2.64071 0.07956 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 330 6 2.61399 0.16269 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 331 6 2.60256 0.17034 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 332 6 2.56541 0.1952 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 333 6 2.53808 0.13335 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 334 6 2.53559 0.33664 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 335 6 2.53316 0.24472 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 336 6 2.53316 0.24472 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 337 6 2.53266 0.21711 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 338 6 2.50897 0.31991 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 339 6 2.47564 0.27754 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, TAL 340 6 2.37424 0.3231 ADHEr, GLU5K, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 341 6 2.37424 0.3231 ADHEr, G5SD, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 342 6 2.37418 0.32314 ADHEr, ASNS2, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 343 6 2.35165 0.11344 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 344 6 2.35165 0.11344 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 345 6 2.28934 0.18186 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 346 6 2.28203 0.17727 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 347 6 2.27443 0.17249 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 348 6 2.27443 0.17249 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 349 6 2.23539 0.22843 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 350 6 2.2276 0.23515 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 351 6 2.22058 0.22724 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 352 6 2.20452 0.22594 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 353 6 2.20452 0.22594 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 354 6 2.10135 0.3242 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 355 6 2.02123 0.34714 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 356 6 1.98114 0.30095 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 357 6 1.96512 0.30664 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 358 6 1.96163 0.34738 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 359 6 1.94766 0.26881 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 360 6 1.84554 0.35787 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, RPE 361 6 1.84094 0.27637 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D 362 6 1.82413 0.31504 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, RPE 363 6 1.82134 0.30945 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE 364 6 1.79836 0.35901 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, TAL 365 6 1.74423 0.2066 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PGI, THD5 366 6 1.63108 0.27824 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 367 6 1.63108 0.27824 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS 368 6 1.59283 0.279 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 369 6 1.55776 0.2797 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 370 6 1.35784 0.33828 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 371 6 1.3281 0.25919 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, SUCOAS 372 6 1.25004 0.31142 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 373 6 1.16323 0.25946 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLYCL, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL 374 6 1.16323 0.25946 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLYCL, LDH_D, PGDH, TAL 375 6 0.94735 0.32316 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE 376 6 0.88343 0.32336 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL 377 6 0.83542 0.27562 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, TAL 378 6 0.83542 0.27562 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, TAL 379 6 0.81371 0.28445 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, ICL, LDH_D 380 6 0.81371 0.28445 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MALS 381 6 0.40293 0.37998 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, ICL, LDH_D, SUCOAS 382 6 0.40293 0.37998 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, LDH_D, MALS, SUCOAS 383 7 6.87929 0.03662 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 384 7 6.87929 0.03662 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PYK 385 7 6.82182 0.04856 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 386 7 6.7498 0.06331 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 387 7 6.70416 0.07266 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 388 7 6.67113 0.07943 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 389 7 6.65401 0.08294 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 390 7 6.45147 0.12443 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy 391 7 6.44861 0.08805 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 392 7 6.44861 0.08805 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 393 7 6.44861 0.08805 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 394 7 6.15823 0.07915 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MALS, MDH 395 7 6.15823 0.07915 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, ICL, LDH_D, MDH 396 7 6.15823 0.07915 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 397 7 6.14605 0.07491 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 398 7 6.1414 0.1578 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH 399 7 6.09037 0.16006 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 400 7 6.08683 0.10358 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 401 7 6.0464 0.06183 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI 402 7 6.04253 0.16218 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 403 7 5.86291 0.1062 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 404 7 5.86291 0.1062 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 405 7 5.79637 0.08575 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI 406 7 5.74642 0.10456 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 407 7 5.71711 0.12348 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 408 7 5.71588 0.18172 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 409 7 5.71588 0.18172 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PGDH, PPS 410 7 5.70575 0.12457 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 411 7 5.69395 0.07981 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 412 7 5.68826 0.10159 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 413 7 5.6857 0.18276 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL 414 7 5.67373 0.1078 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 415 7 5.67231 0.09516 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 416 7 5.65788 0.18372 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE 417 7 5.65108 0.11748 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 418 7 5.64055 0.12198 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 419 7 5.63038 0.12633 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 420 7 5.63037 0.14151 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 421 7 5.61946 0.14377 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 422 7 5.61946 0.14377 ADHEr, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS 423 7 5.60713 0.15264 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 424 7 5.60713 0.15264 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 425 7 5.60017 0.14365 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS 426 7 5.59518 0.14138 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 427 7 5.59117 0.14212 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 428 7 5.58992 0.13977 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, TAL 429 7 5.57521 0.1433 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 430 7 5.57521 0.1433 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 431 7 5.56382 0.059 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 432 7 5.55714 0.14423 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 433 7 5.5551 0.14719 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 434 7 5.54832 0.1485 ADHEr, ASPT, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 435 7 5.54749 0.08705 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 436 7 5.54 0.14449 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH, SUCOAS 437 7 5.53962 0.15019 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 438 7 5.53831 0.08799 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 439 7 5.53831 0.08799 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 440 7 5.53405 0.05732 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 441 7 5.52463 0.06237 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 442 7 5.51713 0.16489 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS 443 7 5.51587 0.14532 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS, TAL 444 7 5.51034 0.14586 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGDH 445 7 5.51034 0.14586 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH 446 7 5.5014 0.07482 ADHEr, ASPT, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 447 7 5.49363 0.14609 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE, SUCOAS 448 7 5.49315 0.18499 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 449 7 5.48581 0.14671 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 450 7 5.48581 0.14671 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 451 7 5.47686 0.19195 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD5 452 7 5.47123 0.12153 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 453 7 5.47123 0.12153 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 454 7 5.46318 0.14749 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 455 7 5.46318 0.14749 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 456 7 5.43967 0.13732 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 457 7 5.41442 0.15603 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 458 7 5.41442 0.15603 ADHEr, ASPT, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 459 7 5.41442 0.15603 ADHEr, ASPT, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 460 7 5.32088 0.07204 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 461 7 5.29376 0.07385 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 462 7 5.29376 0.07385 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 463 7 5.29342 0.0731 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 464 7 5.29342 0.0731 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 465 7 5.20741 0.07603 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PGDH, PPCK 466 7 5.20741 0.07603 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 467 7 5.20289 0.16585 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, RPE 468 7 5.19469 0.07664 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 469 7 5.18818 0.16709 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, TAL 470 7 5.18292 0.0772 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 471 7 5.18092 0.10975 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 472 7 5.18092 0.10975 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 473 7 5.18025 0.13169 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 474 7 5.18025 0.13169 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 475 7 5.17526 0.14527 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 476 7 5.15999 0.12483 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 477 7 5.15742 0.1471 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 478 7 5.13283 0.14064 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 479 7 5.13283 0.14064 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 480 7 5.11128 0.1487 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 481 7 5.10917 0.0835 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, PPCK 482 7 5.10795 0.18114 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 483 7 5.08422 0.18199 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 484 7 5.08162 0.15602 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 485 7 5.08154 0.15604 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 486 7 5.07957 0.15652 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 487 7 5.06238 0.18278 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, EDA and/or PGDHY, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 488 7 5.04933 0.08188 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, SUCOAS 489 7 5.04086 0.10883 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH, PGI 490 7 5.03782 0.10979 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, TAL 491 7 5.03499 0.11069 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, RPE 492 7 5.0347 0.123 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS 493 7 5.02325 0.08242 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, SUCOAS 494 7 5.02325 0.08242 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, SUCOAS 495 7 5.02233 0.1115 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 496 7 5.00367 0.01301 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 497 7 5.00099 0.08371 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, SUCOAS 498 7 4.9785 0.07565 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, LDH_D, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 499 7 4.97218 0.04755 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 500 7 4.96921 0.01295 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 501 7 4.96716 0.01165 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 502 7 4.96611 0.01426 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 503 7 4.96543 0.01322 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 504 7 4.96543 0.01322 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 505 7 4.96335 0.01401 ADHEr, AKGD, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 506 7 4.96335 0.01401 ADHEr, AKGD, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 507 7 4.96309 0.0131 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 508 7 4.96271 0.01323 ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 509 7 4.96187 0.01458 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 510 7 4.96187 0.01458 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 511 7 4.95873 0.01465 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 512 7 4.95686 0.01531 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 513 7 4.95085 0.01406 ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 514 7 4.95085 0.01406 ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 515 7 4.94529 0.0136 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 516 7 4.94524 0.01566 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 517 7 4.94524 0.01566 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 518 7 4.94393 0.07737 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 519 7 4.94353 0.01615 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 520 7 4.94353 0.01615 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 521 7 4.94353 0.01615 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 522 7 4.94073 0.01473 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 523 7 4.9406 0.01618 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 524 7 4.93746 0.13888 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 525 7 4.93038 0.19331 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGDH 526 7 4.92604 0.19438 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 527 7 4.92485 0.04913 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 528 7 4.92203 0.19537 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, RPE 529 7 4.89572 0.18301 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 530 7 4.88586 0.18375 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 531 7 4.8768 0.18443 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 532 7 4.87463 0.19612 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI, THD5 533 7 4.87463 0.19612 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI, THD5 534 7 4.85806 0.05038 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 535 7 4.85603 0.21579 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS 536 7 4.84975 0.05712 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, PYK 537 7 4.84975 0.05712 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 538 7 4.81569 0.05271 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 539 7 4.81323 0.1198 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 540 7 4.81194 0.09049 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, RPE, SUCOAS 541 7 4.81179 0.07918 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 542 7 4.79812 0.05498 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 543 7 4.79812 0.05498 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 544 7 4.79812 0.05498 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 545 7 4.79409 0.12192 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 546 7 4.79101 0.05495 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 547 7 4.78296 0.12315 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 548 7 4.78296 0.12315 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 549 7 4.77588 0.08569 ADHEr, AKGD, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 550 7 4.77588 0.08569 ADHEr, AKGD, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 551 7 4.77561 0.07964 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 552 7 4.77561 0.07964 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 553 7 4.77329 0.08047 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 554 7 4.77329 0.08047 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 555 7 4.7705 0.16052 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 556 7 4.76518 0.08334 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 557 7 4.76374 0.0222 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 558 7 4.76264 0.08425 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 559 7 4.74028 0.09218 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, SUCOAS 560 7 4.74028 0.09218 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK, SUCOAS 561 7 4.73717 0.09329 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK, SUCOAS 562 7 4.73717 0.09329 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, SUCOAS 563 7 4.71257 0.12092 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 564 7 4.69803 0.08636 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MALS, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 565 7 4.69803 0.08636 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, ICL, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 566 7 4.69803 0.08636 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 567 7 4.69803 0.08636 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 568 7 4.68998 0.14917 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 569 7 4.68111 0.0912 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 570 7 4.68111 0.0912 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 571 7 4.68063 0.05195 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 572 7 4.67974 0.09159 ADHEr, AKGD, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 573 7 4.67974 0.09159 ADHEr, AKGD, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 574 7 4.6782 0.13538 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 575 7 4.67079 0.08656 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 576 7 4.66866 0.1492 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 577 7 4.66526 0.1329 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 578 7 4.65177 0.09959 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PPCK, PYK 579 7 4.65177 0.09959 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, PYK 580 7 4.65148 0.09163 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 581 7 4.64795 0.13132 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 582 7 4.64717 0.13258 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 583 7 4.63555 0.16411 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 584 7 4.62743 0.13223 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 585 7 4.62722 0.10661 ADHEr, AKGD, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 586 7 4.62722 0.10661 ADHEr, AKGD, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PYK 587 7 4.61442 0.12597 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 588 7 4.60692 0.10476 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 589 7 4.60239 0.15202 ADHEr, AKGD, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 590 7 4.60239 0.15202 ADHEr, AKGD, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 591 7 4.59777 0.03574 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 592 7 4.59693 0.17398 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, RPE 593 7 4.59408 0.12607 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 594 7 4.588 0.17333 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, SUCOAS 595 7 4.58269 0.16568 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 596 7 4.5614 0.17413 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, RPE, SUCOAS 597 7 4.55514 0.12723 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 598 7 4.54823 0.19006 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 599 7 4.54674 0.19069 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS 600 7 4.53866 0.20774 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 601 7 4.53699 0.1728 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, TAL 602 7 4.53586 0.209 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, TAL 603 7 4.51849 0.13149 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 604 7 4.51845 0.20259 ADHEr, FDH2, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, SUCOAS 605 7 4.50909 0.20652 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 606 7 4.50549 0.20804 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLU5K, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 607 7 4.50549 0.20804 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, G5SD, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 608 7 4.50543 0.20807 ADHEr, ASNS2, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 609 7 4.50378 0.20876 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 610 7 4.50198 0.20952 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FDH2, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, SUCOAS 611 3 0.669528208 0.263200019 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D 612 3 0.110808857 0.249569497 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 613 4 0.93088625 0.384018912 ADHEr, ATPS4r, CBMK2, LDH_D 614 4 1.163912961 0.378757536 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TKT2 615 4 4.552254757 0.171189177 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH 616 4 0.710935568 0.257359864 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, RPE 617 4 0.702400877 0.260125701 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, TAL 618 4 0.719290675 0.254652225 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, TKT2 619 4 2.283994469 0.165173433 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 620 4 0.18159615 0.246009686 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 621 4 4.555303308 0.170023606 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 622 4 0.710935568 0.257359864 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, RPE 623 4 0.702400877 0.260125701 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TAL 624 4 0.753832099 0.262897433 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 625 4 0.719290675 0.254652225 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TKT2 626 4 2.165485624 0.255793845 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 627 4 2.279039418 0.168962421 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 628 4 0.24281895 0.340878264 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH 629 4 2.165485624 0.255793845 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 630 4 4.555303308 0.170023606 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2 631 4 2.575639756 0.188350402 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 632 4 2.359364668 0.333057496 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 633 4 2.365271913 0.329105029 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 634 4 2.381170653 0.338701395 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 635 4 2.440438621 0.335394947 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 636 4 0.303924042 0.270354967 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 637 4 0.276184314 0.387717801 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS 638 4 0.158957458 0.24714816 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 639 4 0.268683115 0.271077634 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 640 4 2.268133298 0.177302028 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 641 4 2.303972218 0.174839451 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 642 4 2.202777355 0.227277897 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK 643 4 0.136108259 0.248297219 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 644 4 0.233253283 0.271804175 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 645 4 0.753832099 0.262897433 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 646 4 1.00803743 0.384504476 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, TKT1 647 4 0.702400877 0.260125701 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, TKT1 648 4 0.136108259 0.248297219 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 649 4 0.702400877 0.260125701 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, TKT1 650 4 2.381170653 0.338701395 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 651 4 0.233253283 0.271804175 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 652 5 0.506864978 0.275350379 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, TKT2 653 5 2.69303784 0.249064654 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 654 5 4.367851715 0.180794605 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, ME2 655 5 0.41729748 0.278421057 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, RPE 656 5 0.325709758 0.281560994 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, TAL 657 5 2.645877173 0.251090969 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 658 5 0.746129455 0.280922235 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 659 5 1.038232852 0.250484522 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FADH4, LDH_D, SUCOAS 660 5 1.091156432 0.260562519 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FADH4, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 661 5 3.468709118 0.171072336 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 662 5 1.635653331 0.170872463 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 663 5 0.971889592 0.254878539 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK 664 5 2.773151559 0.15594541 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 665 5 0.794188757 0.220436537 ADHEr, FADH4, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT2 666 5 4.635305085 0.167733685 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 667 5 0.726213349 0.222710178 ADHEr, FADH4, HEX1, LDH_D, RPE 668 5 4.60885325 0.168834272 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 669 5 4.600497528 0.168070055 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS 670 5 4.582051994 0.169949398 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 671 5 1.218736747 0.252980412 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 672 5 2.323324205 0.162516565 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK, TKT2 673 5 0.794188757 0.220436537 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT2 674 5 1.080064187 0.261131964 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 675 5 1.080064187 0.261131964 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 676 5 4.635305085 0.167733685 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 677 5 4.611480051 0.167700442 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE 678 5 4.603168381 0.166946432 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS 679 5 4.584877196 0.168800591 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TAL 680 5 4.692124349 0.117711987 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 681 5 4.637738386 0.16661454 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TKT2 682 5 4.582051994 0.169949398 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 683 5 1.218736747 0.252980412 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 684 5 2.22459069 0.253337321 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 685 5 2.084553651 0.317680271 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, GLU5K, LDH_D 686 5 2.319043241 0.166454441 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 687 5 0.379133409 0.337257295 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT2 688 5 0.379133409 0.337257295 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 689 5 1.080064187 0.261131964 ADHEr, FADH4, ICL, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 690 5 1.080064187 0.261131964 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MALS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 691 5 2.22459069 0.253337321 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TKT2 692 5 4.611480051 0.167700442 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE 693 5 4.603168381 0.166946432 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS 694 5 4.584877196 0.168800591 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, TAL 695 5 4.692124349 0.117711987 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 696 5 4.637738386 0.16661454 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, TKT2 697 5 2.871064894 0.268281645 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 698 5 2.165924808 0.255458013 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, ME2 699 5 4.328684855 0.179395311 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 700 5 1.421860815 0.279607649 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 701 5 2.626697246 0.185479991 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 702 5 2.515320971 0.228708985 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 703 5 2.3870222 0.31455217 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 704 5 2.452754421 0.325482265 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT2 705 5 2.515320971 0.228708985 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 706 5 2.517581576 0.273304492 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TKT2 707 5 2.44490357 0.275824433 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 708 5 2.6103794 0.186397367 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 709 5 2.555986853 0.242393036 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TKT2 710 5 2.421064631 0.329399782 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 711 5 2.424713593 0.326643472 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, RPE 712 5 2.535155189 0.243219368 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, RPE 713 5 2.593899337 0.187323863 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 714 5 2.391804455 0.331134392 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TAL 715 5 2.470792173 0.274926806 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TAL 716 5 2.514181006 0.244051353 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TAL 717 5 0.318612958 0.180159999 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 718 5 2.298067641 0.164222738 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK, TAL 719 5 1.630847318 0.197351873 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 720 5 4.068156517 0.116307981 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, PPCK 721 5 1.630847318 0.197351873 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 722 5 1.732749142 0.29901565 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 723 5 1.717432965 0.229711682 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 724 5 3.998783556 0.193038233 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi 725 5 4.075902556 0.129526478 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 726 5 3.837085522 0.275765851 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, RPE 727 5 3.820196202 0.277060587 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TAL 728 5 3.853817724 0.274483161 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TKT2 729 5 3.839632897 0.261974412 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 730 5 4.393030474 0.140852085 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 731 5 0.430495607 0.382946425 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TKT2 732 5 0.381078242 0.384474433 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, RPE 733 5 0.331264934 0.386014683 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TAL 734 5 0.331264934 0.386014683 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, TKT1 735 5 0.318612958 0.180159999 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 736 5 2.310761865 0.163365197 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK, RPE 737 5 2.306254619 0.167256205 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 738 5 0.335428873 0.338418234 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 739 5 2.674115155 0.222196435 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 740 5 2.310408468 0.174397201 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT2 741 5 2.084492611 0.317726946 ADHEr, ASNS2, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D 742 5 2.086878053 0.315902866 ADHEr, CBMK2, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D 743 5 2.084553651 0.317680271 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, G5SD, LDH_D 744 5 2.221671127 0.212830356 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 745 5 2.110766092 0.297636347 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 746 5 2.221671127 0.212830356 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 747 5 2.29690811 0.175324843 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, RPE 748 5 2.283263365 0.176262405 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 749 5 2.799273371 0.150483141 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 750 5 2.255979533 0.224464061 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT2 751 5 4.330026614 0.179036754 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 752 5 2.238942691 0.225365131 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, RPE 753 5 2.119938959 0.309086971 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL 754 5 2.221768517 0.226273464 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 755 5 2.186545813 0.254918542 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TAL 756 5 2.293342202 0.16806573 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TAL 757 5 0.29142241 0.339587193 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TAL 758 5 0.29142241 0.339587193 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 759 5 2.186545813 0.254918542 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TAL 760 5 3.603753429 0.189374217 ADHEr, FADH4, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 761 5 4.688321717 0.11916587 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 762 5 3.879826068 0.057433556 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 763 5 2.092923946 0.31127974 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 764 5 1.181362879 0.252361787 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 765 5 0.325709758 0.281560994 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, TKT1 766 5 2.645877173 0.251090969 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 767 5 4.582051994 0.169949398 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 768 5 2.298067641 0.164222738 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK, TKT1 769 5 4.582051994 0.169949398 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 770 5 4.584877196 0.168800591 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TKT1 771 5 2.186545813 0.254918542 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 772 5 2.293342202 0.16806573 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 773 5 0.29142241 0.339587193 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT1 774 5 0.29142241 0.339587193 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 775 5 2.186545813 0.254918542 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, TKT1 776 5 4.584877196 0.168800591 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, TKT1 777 5 2.593899337 0.187323863 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 778 5 2.391804455 0.331134392 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 779 5 2.396471968 0.327812994 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, TKT1 780 5 2.470792173 0.274926806 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, TKT1 781 5 2.514181006 0.244051353 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK, TKT1 782 5 3.820196202 0.277060587 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, TKT1 783 5 2.283263365 0.176262405 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, TKT1 784 5 2.119938959 0.309086971 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, TKT1 785 5 2.221768517 0.226273464 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, TKT1 786 6 4.63815309 0.138347146 ADHEr, ASPT, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 787 6 4.459389393 0.176944819 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 788 6 4.380192095 0.177265253 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MALS, MDH 789 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, TAL 790 6 4.60130813 0.167781976 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TKT2 791 6 4.459389393 0.176944819 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, TKT2 792 6 4.430256792 0.178170044 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, RPE 793 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, TAL 794 6 4.563806878 0.124751372 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 795 6 4.380192095 0.177265253 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, MDH 796 6 4.380192095 0.177265253 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, ME2 797 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 798 6 4.547590285 0.169998972 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 799 6 4.32598859 0.179624623 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 800 6 4.503409516 0.124027245 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 801 6 4.55209485 0.121669936 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGDH 802 6 4.519337222 0.123256037 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, RPE 803 6 4.535068073 0.12249436 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 804 6 5.189612621 0.143792027 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi 805 6 4.321178853 0.120168187 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 806 6 4.555303308 0.170023606 ADHEr, DAAD, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PRO1z 807 6 4.552254757 0.171189177 ADHEr, DAAD, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PRO1z 808 6 4.611166872 0.137118286 ADHEr, FADH4, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 809 6 4.681108251 0.164738111 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TKT2 810 6 4.655427003 0.165799614 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, SUCOAS 811 6 4.62941265 0.166874885 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 812 6 4.57471951 0.178914826 ADHEr, FADH4, HEX1, LDH_D, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 813 6 4.72140048 0.117206382 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 814 6 5.77503303 0.099302315 ADHEr, EDA and/or PGDHY, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 815 6 4.802404267 0.049107371 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 816 6 4.611166872 0.137118286 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, PYK 817 6 4.681108251 0.164738111 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TKT2 818 6 4.640728933 0.137362308 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, ME2, PYK 819 6 4.657699713 0.164706045 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE, SUCOAS 820 6 4.683198197 0.163658455 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, TKT2 821 6 4.63187269 0.165767133 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, TAL 822 6 5.443882794 0.111598427 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 823 6 4.714403301 0.10919394 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 824 6 4.727966085 0.117420509 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 825 6 4.724744313 0.115799637 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 826 6 4.710892193 0.11755936 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 827 6 4.744999691 0.117281986 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT2 828 6 4.62941265 0.166874885 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TAL 829 6 4.74186178 0.118725202 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT2 830 6 4.512318137 0.052959973 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 831 6 4.724614564 0.118867157 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 832 6 4.707326054 0.119009453 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 833 6 4.459389393 0.176944819 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, TKT2 834 6 4.380192095 0.177265253 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, ICL, LDH_D, MDH 835 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, TAL 836 6 4.874048363 0.048155873 ADHEr, FADH4, ICL, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 837 6 4.520685593 0.183259208 ADHEr, FADH4, HEX1, ICL, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 838 6 4.459389393 0.176944819 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, TKT2 839 6 4.520685593 0.183259208 ADHEr, FADH4, HEX1, LDH_D, MALS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 840 6 4.874048363 0.048155873 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MALS, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 841 6 4.517532821 0.171239478 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS 842 6 4.640728933 0.137362308 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, ME2, PYK 843 6 4.657699713 0.164706045 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE, SUCOAS 844 6 4.683198197 0.163658455 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, TKT2 845 6 4.63187269 0.165767133 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, TAL 846 6 4.724744313 0.115799637 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 847 6 4.744999691 0.117281986 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT2 848 6 4.526462669 0.168070055 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS 849 6 5.443882794 0.111598427 ADHEr, FADH4, HEX1, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 850 6 4.714403301 0.10919394 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 851 6 4.727966085 0.117420509 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 852 6 4.710892193 0.11755936 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 853 6 4.33071542 0.180983121 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 854 6 4.313819364 0.203396482 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 855 6 4.836109146 0.120863498 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi, PGI 856 6 5.044438059 0.165184738 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 857 6 5.168015107 0.134224131 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 858 6 5.320455827 0.059323173 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 859 6 4.74186178 0.118725202 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT2 860 6 4.512318137 0.052959973 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 861 6 4.724614564 0.118867157 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, RPE, THD2 and/or GLUDy 862 6 4.888461627 0.046924032 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, PPCK, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 863 6 4.707326054 0.119009453 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, TAL, THD2 and/or GLUDy 864 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 865 6 4.547590285 0.169998972 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TKT1 866 6 4.535068073 0.12249436 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 867 6 4.62941265 0.166874885 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TKT1 868 6 4.63187269 0.165767133 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, TKT1 869 6 4.710892193 0.11755936 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT1 870 6 4.62941265 0.166874885 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS, TKT1 871 6 4.707326054 0.119009453 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT1 872 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, TKT1 873 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, TKT1 874 6 4.40071793 0.179412355 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, TKT1 875 6 4.63187269 0.165767133 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, SUCOAS, TKT1 876 6 4.710892193 0.11755936 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT1 877 6 4.707326054 0.119009453 ADHEr, FADH4, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy, TKT1

Minimal Gene Deletion Sets for Enhanced Production of 6-ACA. Described above are strain design strategies for improving 6-aminocaproate (6-ACA) production in microorganisms that possess the 6-ACA pathway via acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA. Based on an extensive analysis of the strain designs for 6-ACA production described in Table 14, a minimum set of deletions that is required for growth-coupled 6-ACA production has been identified. Note that phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PPCK) was assumed to be reversible.

Briefly, deletions in acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D) are required for preventing the formation of competing byproducts, ethanol and lactate. Therefore, the minimal deletion set comprises deletion of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D). Additional deletion strains include strains lacking at least one of the following activities in addition to ADHEr and LDH_D: malate dehydrogenase (MDH), aspartase (ASPT), NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2), and glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy). Such additional deletions result in a much tighter coupling of production with cell growth. FIGS. 28-31 show calculated 6-ACA versus growth yields for deletion mutants having at least deletion of ADHEr and LDH_D (FIG. 28). Calculated yields for strains with additional deletions are shown in FIGS. 29-31.

An additional minimal set of deletions includes phosphoglucoisomerase (PGI). This design focuses on generating reducing equivalents via the pentose phosphate pathway. Additional beneficial deletions include any of: acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr), hexokinase (HEX1), 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-phosphogluconate aldolase (EDA) and phosphogluconate dehydratase (PGDHy). FIGS. 32-34 show calculated 6-ACA versus growth yields for deletion mutants having at least deletion of PGI, with additional exemplary mutants shown FIGS. 32-34.

Each of these strains can be supplemented with additional deletions if it is determined that the predicted strain designs do not sufficiently couple the formation of the product with biomass formation or for increased efficiency of coupling the formation of the product with biomass formation. Alternatively, some other enzymes not known to possess significant activity under the growth conditions can become active due to adaptive evolution or random mutagenesis. Such enzyme activities can also be knocked out. For example, succinate dehydrogenase that oxidizes succinate to fumarate and is known to be active only under aerobic conditions can assume significant activity even under anaerobic conditions, and therefore such activity can be knocked out. However, the list of gene deletion sets provided herein serves as a good starting point for construction of high-yielding growth-coupled 6-ACA production strains.

Minimal Gene Deletion Sets for Enhanced Production of Adipate. Described above are strain design strategies for improving adipate production in microorganisms that possess the adipate pathway via acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA. Based on an extensive analysis of the strain designs for adipate production described in Table 15, a minimum set of deletions that is required for growth-coupled adipate production in the network has been identified. Note that phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PPCK) was assumed to be reversible in the network.

Briefly, deletions in acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D) are required for preventing the formation of competing byproducts, ethanol and lactate. Therefore, the minimal deletion set comprises deletion of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D). Additional deletion strains include a strain lacking at least one of the following activities in addition to acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D): fumarase (FUM), phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), PEP carboxykinase (PPCK), hexokinase (HEX1), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), and NADH dehydrogenase (NADH6).

Additional deletions have been identified by the OptKnock framework for improving the growth-coupled formation of adipate. These include one or more of the following: malic enzyme (ME2), aspartate transaminase (ASPT), acetate kinase (ACKr), phosphotransacetylase (PTAr), pyruvate formate lyase (PFL), transhydrogenase (THD2), and glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy), and PTS system of glucose uptake (GLCpts). Further improvements in yields can be achieved by additional deletions in any of the following enzymes: ATP synthase (ATPS4r), phosphogluconate dehydratase (PGDHY), 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-phosphogluconate aldolase (EDA), 6-phosphogluconolactonase (PGL), glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDHY), and phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGDH).

Each of these strains can be supplemented with additional deletions if it is determined that the predicted strain designs do not sufficiently couple the formation of the product with biomass formation or for increased efficiency of coupling the formation of the product with biomass formation. Alternatively, some other enzymes not known to possess significant activity under the growth conditions can become active due to adaptive evolution or random mutagenesis. Such enzyme activities can also be knocked out. However, the list of gene deletion sets provided herein serves as a good starting point for construction of high-yielding growth-coupled adipate production strains.

Minimal Gene Deletion Sets for Enhanced Production of HMDA. Described above are strain design strategies for improving hexamethylene diamine (HMDA) production in microorganisms that possess the HMDA pathway via acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA. Based on an extensive analysis of the strain designs for HMDA production described in Table 16, a minimum set of deletions that is required for growth-coupled HMDA production in the network has been identified. Note that phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PPCK) was assumed to be reversible in the network.

Briefly, deletions in acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D) are required for preventing the formation of competing byproducts, ethanol and lactate. Therefore, the minimal deletion set comprises deletion of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D). Additional deletion strains include a strain lacking at least one of the following activities in addition to acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D): fumarate reductase (FRD2), fumarase (FUM), phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), or PEP carboxykinase (PPCK).

Additional deletions have been identified by the OptKnock framework for improving the growth-coupled formation of HMDA. These include one or more of the following: hexokinase (HEX1), malic enzyme (ME2), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), aspartate transaminase (ASPT), acetate kinase (ACKr), phosphotransacetylase (PTAr), pyruvate formate lyase (PFL), and pyruvate kinase (PYK). The HMDA yields can be further improved by further deleting one or more of the following enzymes: transhydrogenase (THD2), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy), ATP synthase (ATPS4r), GLCpts (PTS system of glucose uptake), PGDHY (phosphogluconate dehydratase) and EDA (2-dehydro-3-deoxy-phosphogluconate aldolase).

Each of these strains can be supplemented with additional deletions if it is determined that the predicted strain designs do not sufficiently couple the formation of the product with biomass formation or for increased efficiency of coupling the formation of the product with biomass formation. Alternatively, some other enzymes not known to possess significant activity under the growth conditions can become active due to adaptive evolution or random mutagenesis. Such enzyme activities can also be knocked out. For example, succinate dehydrogenase that oxidizes succinate to fumarate and is known to be active only under aerobic conditions can assume significant activity even under anaerobic conditions, and therefore such activity can be knocked out. However, the list of gene deletion sets provided herein serves as a good starting point for construction of high-yielding growth-coupled HMDA production strains.

Optknock Strain Design for Growth-Coupled Production of Adipic Acid. Described below is a further exemplification of a deletion strategy for engineering a strain to synthesize adipate using a succinyl-CoA pathway. All high-priority growth-coupled designs for adipate synthesis build upon a strain lacking acetylaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase (ADHEr) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D) activities to prevent the formation of fermentation byprouducts, as discussed above. The further deletion of malate dehydrogenase (MDH) also reduces byproduct production. FIG. 35 shows growth-coupled adipate production characteristics of high priority strain designs (grey) compared with that of wild-type E. coli (black). A glucose uptake rate of 10 mmol/gDW/hr is assumed. A strain deficient in ADHEr, LDH_D and MDH activities (Design 1 in FIG. 35) is predicted to achieve an adipate yield of 0.51 grams adipate per gram of glucose utilized (g/g) at the maximum biomass yield.

Designs 2-4 build on Design 1 as a base design. Design 2 entails the removal of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PPCK). This design improves the adipate yield to 3.6 g/g at the maximum biomass yield. The additional deletion of pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi) activity in Design 3 further improves yield by preventing secretion of formate as a byproduct. The predicted adipate yield of this design is 5.8 g/g. Design 4 features the deletion of NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2) in addition to ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK and PFLi. This results in an adipate yield of 6.8 g/g at a growth rate of 0.117 l/hr. Design 4 serves to tightly couple adipate production to cell growth while achieving 91% of the theoretical maximum yield.

EXAMPLE XXXI

Biosynthesis of Adipate Semialdehyde from Adipate and 6-Aminocaproate Semialdehyde from 6-Aminocaproate

This Example describes the biosynthetic production of adipate semialdehyde from adipate and of 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde from 6-aminocaproate.

The transformation from adipate to adipate semialdehyde (FIG. 25, step X) can by catalyzed by the carboxylic acid reductases (CAR). This is demonstrated by the following results. Chemically competent cells of E. coli strain ECKh-422 (ΔadhE, ΔldhA, ΔpflB, ΔlpdA, integrated lpdA from Klebsiella pneumonia::E354K, Δmdh, ΔarcA, gltA-R163L) with f′pKLJ33s were transformed with pZs*13s plasmids harboring various CAR gene (Table 17) or a control plasmid without any CAR gene. Single colonies of the transformations were selected and grown overnight in LB at 37° C. with 100 μg/ml carbenecillin and 10 μg/ml chloramphenicol. The cells were subcultured at a ratio of 1:50 and induced with 200 μM IPTG at an OD600 of 0.6. Cells were incubated for 5 hours at 37° C. before harvesting. Cell cultures were aliquoted into 15 ml samples and pelleted. The cell pellets were stored at −80° C. until used for the assay.

TABLE 17 CAR genes used this example Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism 720 AAR91681.1 40796035 Nocardia iowensis 889 YP_887275.1 118473501 Mycobacterium smegmatis str. MC2 155 890 YP_889972.1 118469671 Mycobacterium smegmatis str. MC2 155 891 NP_959974.1 41407138 Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis K-10 892 YP_001850422.1 183982131 Mycobacterium marinum M

Cell pellets were lysed by addition of 500 μA B-PER with 0.5 μA lysozyme and benzonase. CAR activity was measured by addition of 2 μA of crude lysate to the assay solution of 50 mM Tris (pH 7.2), 1 mM EDTA, 10 mM MgCl₂, 1 mM DTT, 10% (v/v) glycerol, 1 mM ATP, 0.5 mM NADPH and 20 mM Adipate or 50 mM 6-Aminocaproate in a 96 well format microplate with a total volume of 250 μA. The oxidation of NADPH to NADP⁺ was monitored at an absorbance of 340 nm for 30 minutes at room temperature. The rate of NADPH depletion was used to calculate activity of the various CAR proteins. Total protein concentration of each lysate was determined by Bradford, and the activity was normalized to the total protein concentration (Units/mg).

Transformation from Adipate to Adipate Semialdehyde (FIG. 24, Step). As shown in FIG. 36, significant CAR activities using adipate as a substrate was observed with both CAR genes 889 and 891, whereas the control lysate did not show CAR activity.

Furthermore, a reaction was setup consisting of 500 μA of 50 mM Tris (pH 7.2), 1 mM EDTA, 10 mM MgCl₂, 1 mM DTT, 10% (v/v) glycerol, 5 mM ATP, 3 mM NADPH and 20 mM Adipate. The reaction was incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes and stopped by addition of 1% formic acid. The sample was then centrifuged and the supernatant was analyzed by LC-MS. Low mM level of adipate semialdehyde was detected that confirmed the transformation from adipate to adipate semialdehyde.

Transformation from 6-aminocaproate to 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde. As shown in FIG. 37, significant CAR activities using 6-aminocaproate as a substrate was observed with several CAR genes 720, 889, 890, 891 and 892, whereas the control lysate did not show CAR activity. These results indicate the transformation from 6-aminocaproate to 6-aminocaproate semialdehyde.

Throughout this application various publications have been referenced. The disclosures of these publications in their entireties are hereby incorporated by reference in this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. Although the invention has been described with reference to the examples provided above, it should be understood that various modifications can be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine pathway comprising at least two exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a hexamethylenediamine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce hexamethylenediamine, said hexamethylenediamine pathway comprising a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA/acyl-CoA transferase or a 6-aminocaproyl-CoA synthase; 6-aminocaproyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and a hexamethylenediamine transaminase or a hexamethylenediamine dehydrogenase, and wherein the microbial organism is selected from the group consisting of bacteria, yeast and fungus.
 2. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises said hexamethylenediamine pathway (i) and further comprises a 6-aminocaproic acid pathway.
 3. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises two, three, four, five, six, seven or eight exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a hexamethylenediamine pathway enzyme.
 4. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is a heterologous nucleic acid.
 5. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said non-naturally occurring microbial organism is in a substantially anaerobic culture medium.
 6. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1 further comprising one or more metabolic modifications of Table
 16. 7. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 6, wherein said microbial organism comprises a set of metabolic modifications selected from one of design ID 1 to design ID 877, or a combination thereof.
 8. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1 further having an adipyl-CoA pathway and comprising an exogenous nucleic acid encoding a thiolase, wherein said thiolase selectively produces 3-oxoadipyl-CoA in comparison to acetoacetyl-CoA.
 9. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said thiolase is selected from the group consisting of the beta-ketothiolase encoded by the phaD gene of Pseudomonas putida (KT2440), the beta-ketoadipyl-CoA thiolase encoded by the pcaF gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, and the 3-oxoadipyl-CoA thiolase encoded by the bkt gene of Burkholderia ambifaria AMMD, or an ortholog thereof having thiolase activity.
 10. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 9, wherein said exogenous nucleic acid comprises a nucleic acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO: 20, 38 and
 47. 11. Culture medium comprising hexamethylenediamine, wherein said hexamethylenediamine was produced by the non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim
 1. 12. A method for producing hexamethylenediamine, comprising culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1 under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce hexamethylenediamine.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein said method further comprises separating the hexamethylenediamine from other components in the culture.
 14. A method for production of hexamethylenediamine by the microbial organism having a hexamethylenediamine pathway in which adipyl-CoA is an intermediate in said pathway, comprising culturing the microbial organism of claim
 8. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein said method further comprises separating the hexamethylenediamine from other components in the culture. 